The 20th century was a transformative period for Africa, as the continent experienced dramatic political, social, and economic changes. These shifts were largely driven by decolonization, the rise of independence movements, and the establishment of new African nations. This period was also marked by struggles for equality, civil rights, and self-determination.

Below is an in-depth exploration of 10 significant events that shaped African history during the 20th century.

First Leaders of all African Countries

The Formation of the African National Congress (1912)

The formation of the African National Congress (ANC) in 1912 was a pivotal event in African history. Established in Bloemfontein, South Africa, the ANC was initially founded as the South African Native National Congress to fight for the civil rights of Black South Africans. Over time, it became the primary organization that led the struggle against the oppressive apartheid regime.

During its early years, the ANC sought to address issues of land rights, pass laws, and labor conditions that affected Black South Africans under British colonial rule. In the mid-20th century, leaders like Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo, and Walter Sisulu rose within the ANC, transforming it into a mass movement for civil rights and equality. The ANC’s efforts culminated in the dismantling of apartheid in the early 1990s, leading to South Africa’s first democratic elections in 1994, with Nelson Mandela becoming the country’s first Black president.

Italian Invasion of Ethiopia (1935-1936)

The Italian invasion of Ethiopia from 1935 to 1936 was a critical moment in African history, representing one of the last significant instances of European colonial expansion on the continent. Under the rule of Benito Mussolini, Italy sought to expand its empire by invading and occupying Ethiopia (then Abyssinia), one of the few African nations that had successfully resisted European colonization during the 19th century.

The invasion was met with fierce resistance from Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Haile Selassie. Despite Ethiopia’s valiant defense, Italy, with its modern military technology, managed to occupy the country by May 1936. However, Ethiopia’s resistance to Italian rule continued, and the occupation lasted only until 1941, when Allied forces, including Ethiopian patriots, liberated the country during World War II.

The invasion of Ethiopia drew international condemnation and became a symbol of anti-imperialist resistance. Haile Selassie’s appeal to the League of Nations in 1936 underscored the global importance of Ethiopia’s struggle and highlighted the failures of the League in preventing aggressive actions by imperial powers.

The Formation of the Organization of African Unity (1963)

The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was founded on May 25, 1963, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, by 32 African nations. This marked a crucial moment in Africa’s post-colonial history, as the continent sought to establish unity, peace, and cooperation among its newly independent states. The OAU’s primary goals were to defend the sovereignty of African nations, promote political and economic integration, and support the liberation of African countries still under colonial rule or apartheid.

The OAU played a key role in supporting independence movements in countries like Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa, while also addressing issues of internal conflict, territorial disputes, and economic development. Although the OAU had its shortcomings, particularly in enforcing resolutions and managing conflicts, it laid the foundation for the African Union (AU), which replaced it in 2002. The OAU’s establishment was a landmark moment in the collective pursuit of African self-determination.

The Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya (1952-1960)

The Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya was one of the most significant anti-colonial rebellions in Africa during the 20th century. From 1952 to 1960, the Kikuyu people of central Kenya, alongside other ethnic groups, engaged in an armed struggle against British colonial rule. The uprising was fueled by grievances over land dispossession, forced labor, and the lack of political representation for Africans.

The British colonial government responded to the uprising with brutal force, employing mass detentions, executions, and torture to suppress the rebellion. Although the British eventually quelled the Mau Mau Uprising by 1960, the rebellion played a crucial role in accelerating Kenya’s path to independence. The conflict exposed the contradictions of British colonialism and galvanized nationalist sentiments across the country.

In 1963, Kenya gained independence under the leadership of Jomo Kenyatta, who had been imprisoned during the uprising. The Mau Mau Uprising remains a symbol of resistance to colonial rule and is remembered as a key moment in the broader struggle for African independence.

Ghana Gains Independence (1957)

On March 6, 1957, Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence from European colonial rule. This event marked the beginning of the decolonization process across Africa. Under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana’s independence was seen as a triumph of African self-determination and inspired other African nations to seek their own liberation.

Nkrumah’s vision extended beyond Ghana’s borders. He was a vocal advocate for pan-Africanism, believing that the independence of Ghana was only the first step in the total liberation of Africa. He famously declared, “The independence of Ghana is meaningless unless it is linked up with the total liberation of the African continent.”

Ghana’s independence was a catalyst for the rapid decolonization of the African continent throughout the 1960s, influencing nationalist movements in countries like Nigeria, Kenya, and Zimbabwe. Nkrumah’s role as a pan-African leader also helped lay the groundwork for the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963.

The Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962)

The Algerian War of Independence, fought between the National Liberation Front (FLN) and French colonial forces, was one of the most brutal and significant struggles for independence in Africa. The war, which lasted from 1954 to 1962, resulted in Algeria’s independence from France but left a deep legacy of violence and trauma for both nations.

The war was marked by guerilla warfare, brutal counterinsurgency tactics by the French army, and widespread atrocities on both sides. Torture, mass killings, and internment camps were used by the French to suppress the Algerian insurgency, while the FLN employed acts of terrorism and assassination to advance their cause.

Despite France’s initial refusal to relinquish control of Algeria, international pressure and the determination of the FLN eventually led to negotiations. The war officially ended with the signing of the Évian Accords in 1962, and Algeria gained independence shortly thereafter.

The Algerian War had a profound impact on decolonization movements across Africa and other parts of the world, serving as a stark reminder of the costs of imperialism and the lengths colonized peoples would go to achieve freedom.

Ahmed Ben Bella – Life and Achievements of Algeria’s First President

Sharpeville Massacre (1960)

The Sharpeville Massacre in South Africa was a turning point in the fight against apartheid. On March 21, 1960, South African police opened fire on a peaceful protest in the township of Sharpeville, killing 69 people and wounding 180 others. The protest had been organized by the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) to demonstrate against the apartheid government’s pass laws, which restricted the movement of Black South Africans.

The massacre shocked the world and brought international attention to the brutality of the apartheid regime. In response, the South African government declared a state of emergency, banned anti-apartheid organizations like the ANC and PAC, and arrested many of their leaders.

The Sharpeville Massacre galvanized the anti-apartheid movement, leading to increased militancy within the ANC and the establishment of its armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. It also prompted greater international condemnation of apartheid, leading to South Africa’s isolation in the global community. The massacre is commemorated annually on Human Rights Day in South Africa.

The Congo Crisis (1960-1965)

The Congo Crisis was a period of intense political upheaval and conflict that followed the independence of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then called the Republic of Congo) from Belgium on June 30, 1960. The crisis was characterized by civil war, secessionist movements, foreign intervention, and political assassinations, most notably that of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba in 1961.

The crisis began almost immediately after independence, when ethnic tensions and dissatisfaction with the central government led to the secession of the mineral-rich province of Katanga. The crisis was further complicated by Cold War politics, with the United States and the Soviet Union vying for influence in the region. Lumumba, who sought Soviet support, was deposed and later assassinated with the assistance of foreign powers.

The Congo Crisis exposed the challenges faced by newly independent African nations, particularly in managing ethnic divisions, foreign intervention, and internal governance. It ended in 1965 when Joseph Mobutu (later known as Mobutu Sese Seko) seized power and established a dictatorial regime that lasted until 1997.

Atrocities committed in the Congo Free State under King Leopold II

The End of Apartheid in South Africa (1994)

The end of apartheid in South Africa in 1994 marked one of the most significant political transitions of the 20th century. Apartheid, a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination, had governed South Africa since 1948. Under apartheid, the white minority government enforced strict laws that discriminated against the Black majority population, denying them political rights, economic opportunities, and access to education and healthcare.

The anti-apartheid struggle was led by the African National Congress (ANC), with figures like Nelson Mandela, Desmond Tutu, and Walter Sisulu playing prominent roles. After decades of internal resistance, international sanctions, and diplomatic pressure, the apartheid regime began to unravel in the early 1990s.

In 1994, South Africa held its first democratic elections open to all races, marking the official end of apartheid. Nelson Mandela, who had been released from prison in 1990 after 27 years of incarceration, was elected the country’s first Black president. The peaceful transition to democracy in South Africa is widely regarded as a triumph of reconciliation and a beacon of hope for human rights and equality.

Nelson Mandela’s role in the fight against apartheid in South Africa

Rwandan Genocide (1994)

The Rwandan Genocide was one of the darkest moments in African history during the 20th century. Between April and July 1994, an estimated 800,000 people, primarily from the Tutsi ethnic group, were systematically slaughtered by Hutu extremists in Rwanda. The genocide was triggered by the assassination of Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana, a Hutu, when his plane was shot down on April 6, 1994.

In the wake of the president’s death, government forces and militias known as the Interahamwe initiated a campaign of mass killings against the Tutsi population, as well as moderate Hutus. The international community largely failed to intervene, and the United Nations peacekeeping force present in Rwanda was unable to prevent the massacre.

The genocide ended when the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), led by Paul Kagame, seized control of the country in July 1994. The aftermath of the genocide left Rwanda deeply scarred, with millions of refugees and a shattered society. The genocide also prompted significant international reflection on the responsibility to protect civilians in cases of mass atrocity.

Conclusion

The 20th century was a period of profound change and upheaval in Africa. These 10 significant events—ranging from independence struggles to revolutions, wars, and human rights crises—shaped the continent’s political, social, and economic trajectory. From the founding of liberation movements and the rise of post-colonial states to the horrors of genocide and the end of apartheid, Africa’s 20th century history is a testament to both the resilience and complexity of its people and nations.

9 Most Influential African Leaders of the 20th Century