Hormuzd Rassam: Life & Major Works of the Famed Assyriologist

 

Hormuzd Rassam, born in Mosul in 1826, is recognized as one of the most significant figures in the field of Assyriology, known for his groundbreaking discoveries and contributions to the understanding of Mesopotamian culture and history.

As an Assyrian Christian in what was then the Ottoman Empire, Rassam not only bridged Western and Middle Eastern perspectives but also achieved a notable reputation in the fields of archaeology and diplomacy. His life’s work sheds light on ancient Mesopotamia and has left an enduring impact on both archaeology and cultural heritage studies.

Early Life and Background

Rassam was born into a respected Assyrian family in Mosul, located in present-day northern Iraq. His father was associated with the Chaldean Catholic Church, where Rassam’s grandfather, Anton, served as archdeacon, placing the family in a respected position within their community. Rassam’s mother, Theresa, hailed from an established family in Aleppo, adding to his connections across the Ottoman Empire. Growing up in this environment, Rassam would have been familiar with both Assyrian heritage and the region’s diverse religious and cultural landscape.

Rassam’s connection to British influence began through his brother, who served as the British Vice-Consul in Mosul. This diplomatic connection provided Rassam with a unique opportunity to work with British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard, who arrived in Mosul in the 1840s to excavate ancient Assyrian sites.

Start in Archaeology with Austen Henry Layard

In 1846, at just 20 years old, Rassam joined Layard’s excavation at the site of Nimrud, one of the ancient capitals of Assyria, serving as a paymaster. Layard quickly recognized Rassam’s dedication and capability, fostering a lifelong friendship between the two. Seeing potential in his young colleague, Layard provided him with the opportunity to study in England at Magdalen College, Oxford, where Rassam spent 18 months learning under some of the top scholars of the time. This experience further developed Rassam’s knowledge and prepared him for the future archaeological work that would define his career.

After his studies, Rassam rejoined Layard’s second expedition in Iraq from 1849 to 1851. Layard eventually transitioned into a political career, but Rassam continued his work in the field. His early excavations included the ancient sites of Nineveh and Nimrud, where he uncovered thousands of clay tablets, some of which would later be recognized as containing the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest literary works in history. This discovery, particularly the tablets describing a great flood, sparked debates about the origins of biblical narratives and brought significant attention to the field of Assyriology.

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Diplomatic Career and the Ethiopian Mission

Beyond archaeology, Rassam’s career also ventured into diplomacy, largely thanks to the support of Layard, who had connections within the British government. Rassam’s first major diplomatic role was in Aden, where he was appointed as First Political Resident, helping mediate between British interests and local rulers. He facilitated agreements that promoted stability in the region, building a reputation as a skilled diplomat.

Rassam’s diplomatic skills were put to the test in 1866 when he was sent to Ethiopia to resolve an international crisis. Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia had detained British missionaries and diplomats, leading to a tense standoff. Rassam, acting as an envoy, initially made progress in negotiations. Tewodros welcomed him with gifts and even released some hostages.

However, when another British agent, Charles Tilstone Beke, delivered letters from the hostages’ families to the emperor, it raised suspicions and complicated Rassam’s mission. Tewodros ultimately reversed his stance, detaining Rassam and his delegation as well.

The hostages remained captive for two years, until 1868, when British and Indian forces, led by Robert Napier, launched a military expedition to rescue them. While Rassam’s actions earned him the gratitude of Queen Victoria and a monetary award, some British media outlets criticized his role, often unfairly influenced by racial biases against Middle Eastern representatives. Nonetheless, Rassam’s supporters recognized his qualifications and diplomatic skills, acknowledging the challenging circumstances he faced in Ethiopia.

READ MORE: Most Famous Emperors of Ethiopia

Return to Archaeology and Major Discoveries

After his diplomatic service, Rassam returned to archaeology, conducting four major expeditions for the British Museum between 1877 and 1882. With Austen Henry Layard now serving as the British Ambassador to Constantinople, Rassam secured permission from the Ottoman Sultan to export artifacts to England, provided that duplicates remained in Ottoman territory.

During this period, Rassam made several notable discoveries, further cementing his legacy in Assyriology. Among his significant finds were the Temple of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud, where he uncovered artifacts that provided insight into the religious practices of the ancient Assyrians. Additionally, he discovered the Ashurbanipal Cylinder at Nineveh, a ten-sided prism containing records of the Assyrian king’s military campaigns.

One of Rassam’s most renowned discoveries was the Cyrus Cylinder, found at the site of Esagila in Babylon in 1879. The cylinder, a proclamation by Persian King Cyrus the Great, dates back to 539 BCE and commemorates Cyrus’s conquest of Babylon. It is often regarded as an early charter of human rights for its declaration of religious tolerance and restoration of displaced peoples. This find highlighted the multicultural and diverse nature of the ancient Near East and became one of the British Museum’s most treasured artifacts.

In 1881, Rassam also excavated the ancient site of Sippar, where he uncovered the Temple of the Sun. This site yielded a wealth of artifacts, including the Cylinder of Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon, and a stone tablet inscribed with ritualistic texts. Rassam unearthed approximately 50,000 clay tablets at Sippar, containing temple records that have since been invaluable to researchers studying ancient Babylonian administration and culture.

Honors and Controversies

Rassam’s contributions to archaeology earned him recognition and honors. The Italian Royal Academy of Sciences awarded him the Brazza prize, and he was elected as a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Society of Biblical Archaeology.

Despite his accomplishments, Rassam faced significant controversy, especially from British archaeologist Sir Henry Rawlinson, a prominent figure in Assyriology. Rawlinson, who had worked as the British Consul in Baghdad, downplayed Rassam’s role in some of his discoveries, describing him as merely a “digger” and claiming the credit for himself.

Layard defended Rassam, praising him as honest and skilled. However, the tensions did not end there. In 1893, Rassam sued E. A. Wallis Budge, a keeper at the British Museum, for slander after Budge accused him of smuggling artifacts and providing “rubbish” to the museum. Rassam won the case, successfully defending his reputation. Nonetheless, these disputes highlighted the challenges that Rassam faced as a Middle Eastern archaeologist working within a largely Western field.

Later Life and Legacy

Rassam spent his later years in Brighton, England, where he continued writing on Assyrian history, archaeology, and religious topics.

He married Anne Eliza Price, an Englishwoman, and they had seven children. His eldest daughter, Theresa, pursued a career in music, while another daughter, Annie Ferida, had connections to British intelligence, adding an interesting layer to Rassam’s family history.

Rassam died on September 8, 1910, and was buried in Hove Cemetery. Artifacts related to his life, including chains he wore while held captive in Ethiopia, were displayed at Hove Museum before being transferred to the British Museum.

His discoveries, including the Cyrus Cylinder and Balawat Gates, remain iconic artifacts in the British Museum’s collection, showcasing the richness of ancient Mesopotamian culture.

Contributions to Assyriology and Archaeology

Rassam’s work had a profound impact on Assyriology and the study of ancient Mesopotamian civilizations. His discoveries helped scholars better understand the political, religious, and cultural practices of Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. The artifacts he uncovered—especially the Cyrus Cylinder, the Ashurbanipal Cylinder, and the Balawat Gates—provide tangible connections to the past and highlight the complexities of these ancient empires.

Despite the controversies and challenges he faced, Rassam’s contributions remain invaluable. His discoveries bridged a gap between the East and the West, allowing European scholars to gain a deeper appreciation for Mesopotamian history and its influence on subsequent civilizations. His background as an Assyrian Christian from the Ottoman Empire also added a unique perspective to his work, helping him approach ancient Assyrian culture with a personal connection and respect.

In modern archaeology, Rassam’s reputation is more positively acknowledged, and he is recognized as a pioneer in the field. While some criticisms of his methods—particularly the simultaneous excavation of multiple sites without extensive documentation—persist, his accomplishments are celebrated for their role in expanding knowledge of ancient Mesopotamian societies.

Conclusion

Hormuzd Rassam’s life and work stand as a testament to the enduring influence of ancient Mesopotamia and the importance of cross-cultural scholarship. From his beginnings as an assistant to Austen Henry Layard, Rassam rose to become one of the most notable figures in Assyriology, bridging Assyrian heritage with Western scholarship. His legacy is preserved not only in the artifacts he uncovered but also in the recognition he gradually earned as a key figure in early archaeology.

Frequently Asked Questions

What was Rassam’s family background?

Rassam came from a respected family; his father was associated with the Chaldean Catholic Church, where his grandfather Anton served as archdeacon. His mother, Theresa, was from an established family in Aleppo.

How did Rassam begin his career in archaeology?

Rassam started his archaeological career in 1846 as a paymaster under British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard, who was excavating the Assyrian site of Nimrud.

What opportunity did Layard provide Rassam early in his career?

Layard sponsored Rassam to study in England at Magdalen College, Oxford, where Rassam studied for 18 months before returning to the Middle East.

What significant artifact did Rassam discover independently?

Rassam discovered clay tablets that were later identified as the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest known literary works, containing a flood narrative that predated the biblical story of Noah.

What role did Rassam play for the British government?

The Assyriologist worked as a diplomat for the British government, holding a post in Aden and later acting as an envoy to Ethiopia during a crisis involving detained British missionaries and diplomats.

Initially promising, Rassam’s mission took a turn when Emperor Tewodros II became suspicious and detained Rassam and his delegation. The hostages were held until a British military expedition freed them in 1868.

How did the British public perceive Rassam’s role in the Ethiopian mission?

Despite his diplomatic efforts, some British media criticized Rassam, influenced by racial biases of the time. However, he had supporters who acknowledged his skill and qualifications.

What were some of Rassam’s major archaeological discoveries after returning to the field?

Rassam made major discoveries, including the Ashurnasirpal Temple at Nimrud, the Ashurbanipal Cylinder, the Cyrus Cylinder, and a large number of clay tablets at Sippar.

What honors did Rassam receive for his work?

Rassam was awarded the Brazza prize by the Italian Royal Academy of Sciences and was elected to societies such as the Royal Geographical Society and the Society of Biblical Archaeology.

What controversies surrounded Rassam’s work?

Sir Henry Rawlinson downplayed Rassam’s contributions, calling him a mere laborer, while Rassam also sued E. A. Wallis Budge for slander, winning in court.

What was Rassam’s family life like?

Rassam married Anne Eliza Price and had seven children. His daughter Theresa became a singer, and another daughter, Annie Ferida, had connections to British intelligence.

Where did Rassam spend his later years, and what did he focus on?

The famed Assyriologist spent his later years in Brighton, England, writing about archaeology, Assyrian history, and religious issues.

When did Rassam die, and where was he buried?

Hormuzd Rassam died on September 8, 1910, and was buried in Hove Cemetery.

How is Rassam remembered in the field of archaeology?

Rassam is celebrated for bridging Assyrian heritage with Western scholarship, leaving a legacy in archaeology and diplomacy despite controversies.