Phillis Wheatley, a pioneering figure in African American literature, remains one of the most significant literary voices of the 18th century.

Born around 1753 in West Africa, possibly in modern-day Senegal or Gambia, Wheatley’s journey from enslaved child to renowned poet is a powerful story of resilience, intellect, and literary accomplishment.

Her major work, Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, earned her widespread recognition and a place in literary history as the first African American to publish a book of poetry.

Wheatley’s life and works, marked by her remarkable intellectual achievements and complex relationships with race, faith, and identity, continue to inspire readers and scholars today.

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Early Life and Enslavement

The details of Phillis Wheatley’s early life remain largely undocumented, but it is believed she was born around 1753 in a region of West Africa with a strong literary oral tradition.

At the age of seven or eight, she was captured, sold by a local chief, and transported on the slave ship The Phillis to North America. Upon arrival in Boston in 1761, she was purchased by John Wheatley, a wealthy merchant, as a servant for his wife, Susanna Wheatley.

In a customary practice for enslaved people at the time, Phillis was given the name of her ship and her owner’s last name, becoming Phillis Wheatley.

Born in West Africa, Phillis Wheatley was kidnapped into slavery as a child and brought to Boston, where the Wheatley family purchased and educated her.

From a young age, Wheatley’s potential was evident, and the Wheatley family recognized her intelligence and curiosity. Susanna Wheatley, in particular, took an interest in educating her. As a result, Phillis received an exceptional education for a young, enslaved girl—one that even exceeded the typical education provided to women of any race or class in the 18th century. She began studying English, Greek, and Latin, and by the age of 12, she could read complex texts from classical literature and the Bible.

Through her education, Wheatley was exposed to works by poets such as Alexander Pope, John Milton, and Virgil, who would heavily influence her writing style and themes.

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Development as a Poet and Early Works

Phillis Wheatley displayed her poetic talent early on, writing her first poem at age 14. Her debut poem, “To the University of Cambridge, in New England,” was addressed to the students of Harvard, reflecting her early engagement with classical themes and Christian doctrine. Her writing often demonstrated a deep Christian faith, coupled with a classical style that showed her literary training.

Wheatley’s poems captured the attention of the Wheatleys and their social circle, as well as prominent Boston figures. These supporters recognized her talent, but due to her status as an enslaved African woman, many doubted her authorship.

In 1772, a group of influential men, including John Hancock and the governor of Massachusetts, examined her literary abilities and concluded that she was indeed the author of her works. This examination was a response to the skepticism surrounding her authorship and served to validate her talents publicly. The examination also prepared her for the challenges she would face as she sought publication for her work.

Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral: Journey to London and Publication

In 1773, Susanna Wheatley arranged for Phillis to travel to London with her son Nathaniel, where they hoped to find a publisher for her book of poetry. Although Susanna initially arranged the trip to improve Phillis’s health, as she suffered from chronic asthma, the main purpose was to secure publication for her poetry, something she could not achieve in the American colonies.

The Wheatley family’s connections allowed Phillis to gain access to influential members of London society. During her stay, she met figures such as Frederick Bull, the Lord Mayor of London, and Countess Selina Hastings of Huntingdon, who agreed to support the publication of her work.

With financial support from the Countess of Huntingdon, Phillis Wheatley’s first and only published collection, Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, was released in London in September 1773. This collection made Wheatley an international figure and was well-received in both England and America. In it, Wheatley explored themes of Christianity, classical references, and moral reflection.

Her poems reflected a blend of personal experience and scholarly influence, creating a unique voice in 18th-century literature. Notably, her works in this collection do not overtly discuss the topic of slavery, a fact that later critics have debated. However, some of her poems subtly hint at themes of freedom and equality, woven into Christian reflections and classical references.

Emancipation and the Challenges of Freedom

The publication of Wheatley’s book marked a turning point in her life. Shortly after her return to Boston, John and Susanna Wheatley formally emancipated Phillis, making her a free woman. This freedom, however, presented a host of new challenges.

In 1774, Susanna Wheatley died, followed by John Wheatley in 1778. Without their protection, Phillis faced a harsh reality in a society that was deeply prejudiced and economically uncertain. Her freedom brought with it the expectation to sustain herself financially, a difficult task for a Black woman in Revolutionary America.

After emancipation, Wheatley married John Peters, but died in poverty at 31, following a life marked by both achievement and hardship.

In 1778, Wheatley married John Peters, a free Black man who worked as a grocer. Life with Peters was challenging due to financial hardships and social discrimination. The couple lost two children to illness, and Phillis’ later life was marked by poverty and hardship.

How did Phillis Wheatley die?

When her husband Peters was imprisoned for debt in 1784, Wheatley, now caring for an infant son, took work as a scullery maid, an occupation that exhausted her physically and emotionally. She contracted pneumonia and died on December 5, 1784, at the age of 31. Her infant son died shortly afterward, marking a tragic end to her life and struggles as a free Black woman in 18th-century America.

Correspondence and Connections with Influential Figures

Throughout her life, Phillis Wheatley maintained correspondences with prominent figures on both sides of the Atlantic. She expressed her ideas about faith, freedom, and human rights through these communications, which included letters to American and British abolitionists.

One of her notable correspondences was with Reverend Samson Occom, a Mohegan preacher, to whom she voiced her support for the natural rights of enslaved people and her anti-slavery sentiments. In her letter, she praised Occom for advocating that enslaved people deserved their inherent rights, aligning herself subtly with the abolitionist cause.

Wheatley also corresponded with General George Washington, to whom she sent a copy of her poem, “To His Excellency, George Washington.” Impressed by her work, Washington invited her to his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1776. This meeting underscored her significance as a literary figure and as an African American woman engaging with influential leaders. Her poem was later republished by Thomas Paine, further increasing her prominence during the Revolutionary War.

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Themes and Style in Wheatley’s Poetry

Wheatley’s poetry is noted for its refined classical style and Christian themes, demonstrating her scholarly influences and deep religious conviction.

Her works often blend personal experience with broader philosophical reflections. While she did not directly address her status as an enslaved African in her early poetry, themes of freedom and human dignity frequently emerged, particularly through religious and moral lenses.

One of Wheatley’s best-known poems, “On Being Brought from Africa to America,” explores her journey to the American colonies, interpreting her enslavement through a Christian perspective. In the poem, she expresses gratitude for being “brought” from a “Pagan land” and “taught” to understand Christianity.

While some critics view this as an acceptance of her enslavement, others argue that Wheatley subtly critiques the racism of her time, reminding Christians that “Negroes, black as Cain, / May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train.” In these lines, Wheatley addresses her faith while subtly challenging the view of African inferiority prevalent in her time.

Encouraged in her poetry, Phillis Wheatley published Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral in 1773, gaining international acclaim.

Another significant theme in Wheatley’s poetry is the influence of classical mythology and philosophy. Her work is rich with allusions to figures such as Apollo, Aurora, and the Muses, which she used to express her longing for artistic inspiration and to convey her poetic ambition.

Wheatley’s classical references also align her with Enlightenment ideals, positioning her as a learned poet rather than solely as an anomaly as an African writer. Her allusions to sun imagery, in particular, have been interpreted by scholars as a symbolic nod to her African heritage, using the image of light as a metaphor for knowledge and divinity.

Critical Reception

Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral received a positive reception in England and the American colonies, especially among the educated elite.

Many readers admired her ability to write in a classical style and expressed admiration for her accomplishments given her background as an African enslaved woman. Wheatley’s unique position as both a Christian convert and a published Black poet challenged the prevailing stereotypes of African Americans as intellectually inferior.

Despite her success, Wheatley’s work was not universally accepted. Thomas Jefferson, a leading Enlightenment figure and later President of the United States, dismissed her work in his book Notes on the State of Virginia. Jefferson argued that Black people were inherently incapable of intellectual achievement, despite Wheatley’s obvious talents. His remarks highlighted the pervasive racial biases of the era, which denied Wheatley her rightful place in the literary canon.

Later critiques of her work have focused on the absence of overt political statements against slavery in her poetry, leading some to question whether Wheatley’s work reflects complicity with the system that enslaved her.

However, recent scholarship has reinterpreted Wheatley’s poetry as subtly subversive, noting that her use of Christian and classical references served as a strategic means to address controversial topics without alienating her largely white readership.

Scholars argue that her coded language allowed her to express her views on race and freedom in ways that would resonate with her audience while protecting her from backlash. Wheatley’s poetry, in this reading, reflects her careful negotiation of a complex social and racial landscape.

Legacy and Memorials

Phillis Wheatley’s contributions to American and African American literature have only grown in significance over time. As the first African American to publish a book of poetry, she is celebrated as a foundational figure in the genre, paving the way for later Black authors.

Her work is commemorated in numerous ways, from schools and institutions named in her honor to literary societies dedicated to her legacy.

In 2019, a blue plaque was installed in London at the site where her book was first published, marking her impact in the literary world.

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Wheatley’s legacy has also been preserved in cultural institutions. The Smithsonian’s National Museum of African American History and Culture acquired a significant collection of her works in 2023, reaffirming her historical importance. Her influence extends into modern literature, where her life story and poetry serve as inspirations for contemporary African American writers and poets.

Influence on African American Literature and Criticism

As a pioneering African American poet, Phillis Wheatley’s life and work have had a profound influence on African American literature and criticism. Her success challenged stereotypes about the intellectual capabilities of Black people and contributed to early discussions of racial identity, freedom, and human rights. Her literary achievements opened doors for future Black authors, who would build on her work to further shape the African American literary tradition.

In contemporary scholarship, Wheatley’s work is appreciated for its complexity and subtlety. Critics argue that her use of Christian and classical symbolism allowed her to address themes of freedom and equality in nuanced ways, even while facing limitations due to her race and social status.

Wheatley’s achievements represent a landmark in the history of literature, demonstrating the intellectual contributions of African Americans during a period of intense oppression.

Conclusion

Phillis Wheatley’s life and work embody the triumph of intellect, creativity, and perseverance over adversity. Her journey from enslavement in Africa to literary acclaim in the American colonies and England is a testament to her remarkable talents and determination.

Through her poetry, Wheatley explored themes of faith, identity, and freedom, using a style that drew upon her classical education and Christian beliefs.

Despite facing racism, financial hardship, and personal loss, Wheatley’s legacy endures as a testament to the power of the written word and the enduring spirit of those who challenge the boundaries of their time.

Her contributions to literature continue to inspire readers, underscoring her role as a foundational figure in African American literature.

Frequently Asked Questions

Where was Phillis Wheatley likely born, and how did she come to America?

Phillis Wheatley was likely born in 1753 in West Africa, in what is now Gambia or Senegal. She was kidnapped, sold by a local chief, and transported across the Atlantic on a slave ship named The Phillis. She arrived in Boston in 1761, where she was purchased by John Wheatley.

Who purchased Phillis Wheatley in Boston, and how did she get her name?

Phillis Wheatley was purchased by John Wheatley, a wealthy Boston merchant. She was named “Phillis” after the ship that brought her to America and took on the Wheatley family’s surname.

How did Phillis Wheatley’s education differ from that of other enslaved people?

Phillis received an unusually advanced education for an enslaved person, especially a woman. Under the instruction of the Wheatleys’ daughter Mary and their son Nathaniel, she learned to read and write, eventually studying Greek and Latin classics as well as biblical texts.

What was Phillis Wheatley’s first published work, and at what age did she write it?

Her first published work was the poem “To the University of Cambridge [Harvard], in New England,” which she wrote at the age of 14.

What led to Phillis Wheatley’s journey to London in 1773?

Phillis traveled to London in 1773 with Nathaniel Wheatley primarily to publish her poetry. Due to her status as an enslaved Black woman, her work had not gained support for publication in America.

Who helped Phillis Wheatley publish her book of poetry, and what was the title?

Selina Hastings, the Countess of Huntingdon, financially supported the publication of her book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, which was published in September 1773.

What significant life event occurred for Phillis Wheatley following the publication of her book?

Following the publication of her book, Phillis Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatleys in 1773.

What were some of the hardships Phillis Wheatley faced later in life?

After marrying John Peters, a free Black grocer, Phillis and her family struggled with poverty. She lost two of her children at young ages, and her husband was later imprisoned for debt, forcing her to work as a scullery maid. She died in poor health in December 1784 at age 31.

With which notable figures did Phillis Wheatley correspond, and what themes did her writings convey?

Wheatley corresponded with figures like George Washington and John Thornton. Her writings expressed anti-slavery sentiments, as seen in her letter to Reverend Samson Occom advocating for the rights of enslaved individuals.

What themes did Phillis Wheatley explore in her poetry?

Her poetry often featured Christian themes, classical references, and philosophical ideas. She also used imagery from her African heritage, including symbolic references to the sun.

How was Phillis Wheatley’s work initially received by society, and how has it been re-evaluated by later critics?

Her work was initially praised by colonial and British elites, though figures like Thomas Jefferson dismissed it due to racial biases. Later critics debated her approach to slavery in her work, with some viewing her subtle references as coded messages advocating for freedom.

How has Phillis Wheatley been commemorated in modern times?

Phillis Wheatley is honored as a trailblazer in African American literature. Schools, institutions, and monuments, such as the Phyllis Wheatley YWCA, bear her name. The building is recognized on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983, the four-story red-brick structure features a corbeled brick cornice and is typical of the Colonial Revival institutional architecture popular in the U.S. during the 1920s and 1930s.

In 2019, a commemorative plaque was installed in London, and in 2023, her works were acquired by the Smithsonian’s National Museum of African American History and Culture.

What impact did Phillis Wheatley’s success as a published poet have on African American literature?

Wheatley’s success challenged stereotypes and paved the way for future Black authors, establishing a foundation for African American literature that highlighted resilience and talent amid adversity.