Anu, the ancient Mesopotamian god of the sky, occupies a significant place in the pantheon of gods revered in Sumerian, Akkadian, and later Babylonian and Assyrian cultures.
Known as the supreme deity in many of these traditions, Anu’s name, which means “sky” or “heaven” in Sumerian, reflects his overarching role as the god of the heavens.
While his importance is reflected in his lofty position as the king of the gods, Anu’s presence in myth and worship was often more symbolic than active, with other gods like Enlil and Marduk taking on more practical roles in the everyday lives of the Mesopotamians. Nonetheless, Anu was a foundational figure in the structure of divine rule, the cosmic order, and Mesopotamian cosmology.
Anu’s Origins and Etymology
Anu’s name in Sumerian, “An,” is a direct reference to the sky, indicating his domain as the overarching god of the heavens. In Akkadian, his name is spelled as “Anu,” written either logographically (as the sign DINGIR, which also represents “god”) or syllabically as “da-nu.” Interestingly, because his name already conveyed the meaning of “sky” and “god,” it was not prefixed by the divine determinative in Sumerian texts—a symbol that usually precedes the names of gods. This special status indicates how integral Anu was to the conceptualization of divinity itself. The numeral 60, considered a sacred and perfect number in Mesopotamian mathematics and religion, was associated with Anu, further emphasizing his exalted position.
Anu’s role as the supreme god, though central to the organization of the pantheon, was often passive. He was regarded as the source of all divine and earthly authority, and his power was invoked to legitimize kingship and the rule of other gods. Despite his position as the supreme deity, Anu’s role was often ill-defined in myth, and he was not frequently depicted as directly involved in the affairs of either gods or humans. This has led scholars to describe Anu as a “figurehead” deity—present at the top of the pantheon but not an active participant in most of the myths or worship practices.
Anu in the Pantheon
Anu was regarded as the king of the gods and the highest deity in the Mesopotamian pantheon. In mythological lists such as An = Anum, Anu’s name always appeared at the top, reflecting his supremacy over the other gods. He was believed to be the ultimate source of power, and the right to rule—whether it be the rule of gods or the kingship of humans—was derived from Anu’s authority. The term “Anuship,” or anûtu, was used to describe this concept of divine power, which emanated from Anu and sustained the cosmic order.
Although Anu was the supreme deity, his function was primarily as a distant and overarching figure of authority, rather than an active god involved in the day-to-day lives of humans or gods. Gods like Enlil and, later, Marduk in Babylon, and Ashur in Assyria, took on the role of active rulers who governed more directly over the affairs of the cosmos and humanity. This division of divine labor meant that while Anu was always acknowledged as the supreme god, other deities wielded more practical power.
Anu was closely associated with the Eanna temple in Uruk. Anu’s consorts included Ki, Urash, and Antu. He appears in the Epic of Gilgamesh and Hurrian myths, influencing later mythological traditions. Image: A statue depiction of Enlil.
Enlil, the god of wind and storms, often acted as the primary deity in earlier periods, especially in Sumerian and southern Mesopotamian traditions. Later, as Babylonian culture became dominant, Marduk ascended to the position of head of the pantheon, largely replacing Enlil in his role as the practical god of rulership, while Anu remained the distant source of divine authority. In Assyria, Ashur took on a similar role, acting as the active god of rulership and war, with Anu still considered the supreme figure in theory.
Evidence from Lagash, an ancient Sumerian city-state, suggests that Enlil, not Anu, was considered the head of the pantheon during certain periods, such as during the reigns of Eannatum and Entemena in the Early Dynastic Period. This fluctuating role of Anu as the nominal head of the gods, with other gods holding practical power, is a recurring theme in Mesopotamian religious history.
Anu’s Symbolism and Iconography
Anu was rarely depicted in visual art, which is unusual for such an important deity. Unlike gods such as Enlil, Marduk, or Ishtar, Anu does not have a clear anthropomorphic representation in Mesopotamian artwork. Instead, his symbol was a horned crown placed on a pedestal, which was used to signify his supreme status. This horned crown symbol was often included in depictions of boundary stones (kudurru) and other religious monuments, usually appearing in the upper half of the decoration. On such monuments, Anu’s symbol is often placed beneath the symbols of celestial gods like Ishtar (Venus), Shamash (the sun), and Sin (the moon), further reinforcing his position as a heavenly deity.
Marduk – 9th century BC depiction of the Statue of Marduk, with his servant dragon Mušḫuššu. This was Marduk’s main cult image in Babylon
Anu’s horned crown symbol also shared similarities with those of Enlil and Ashur, suggesting that the divine symbols for these high-ranking gods could overlap in their representation of divine kingship. In some Neo-Assyrian reliefs, Anu’s symbol appeared alongside those of other high gods, reinforcing his identity as a supreme yet somewhat indistinct deity.
Anu was also associated with the number 60, which in Mesopotamian numerology was the most sacred and perfect number. This association symbolized his supremacy in the divine order. Additionally, Anu’s connection to the heavens extended into Mesopotamian astronomy, where he ruled the central zone of the sky. In Mesopotamian star maps, the sky was divided into three regions, with the northern region belonging to Enlil, the southern region to Ea (also known as Enki), and the central region to Anu. These three zones were referred to as the “Ways” of the respective gods, with the “Way of Anu” occupying the middle region of the sky.
Anu’s Relationships with Other Gods
As a central figure in the pantheon, Anu was associated with many other gods through familial and hierarchical relationships. Anu had several consorts over time, reflecting the shifting nature of Mesopotamian theology. Ki, the personification of the earth, was one of his early consorts. She was not always depicted as a fully personified goddess but represented the earth in relation to Anu’s rule over the heavens. Urash, another consort of Anu, was associated with the arable land and agriculture, further emphasizing the connection between the sky and the fertility of the earth. Antu, whose name is the feminine form of Anu, also appeared as his consort, particularly in later periods such as the Seleucid era. In some versions of the mythology, Antu and Anu became the leading deities of the city of Uruk during the late first millennium BCE.
In addition to his consorts, Anu was the father of many prominent gods in the Mesopotamian pantheon. Enlil, the god of storms and wind, was frequently described as Anu’s son, although in some myths, his parentage was more fluid. Enki (or Ea), the god of water, wisdom, and creation, was also considered Anu’s son in many traditions. Together, these three gods—Anu, Enlil, and Ea—formed a powerful triad that represented different aspects of the cosmos: the heavens (Anu), the earth and its governing forces (Enlil), and the waters (Ea).
Ishkur, the storm god also known as Adad in Akkadian tradition, was another son of Anu, as was the fire god Gibil. Anu’s lineage extended beyond these major gods to include a wide range of lesser deities, some of whom represented natural forces or celestial bodies. For instance, Nanaya, the goddess of love, was considered Anu’s daughter in some traditions, while Lamashtu, a demoness associated with infant mortality and disease, was also regarded as one of Anu’s children.
Anu’s descendants also included demons and other malevolent entities. The Sebitti, a group of seven or eight warlike demons, were described as his creations, and he was sometimes considered the father of various destructive spirits that roamed the earth, bringing illness and death.
Anu in Mythology
Although Anu did not feature prominently in many myths, he played crucial roles in several key stories that shaped Mesopotamian religious thought. One of the most famous myths involving Anu is the Epic of Gilgamesh, where his daughter Ishtar (Inanna in Sumerian) requests his help after being rejected by the hero Gilgamesh. In retaliation for Gilgamesh’s spurning of her affections, Ishtar asks Anu to send the Bull of Heaven to punish him. Anu grants her request, setting in motion a series of events that lead to the death of Gilgamesh’s friend, Enkidu, and Gilgamesh’s subsequent quest for immortality. This story illustrates Anu’s role as a distant figure who grants the requests of other gods but does not intervene directly in mortal affairs.
In the myth of Adapa, Anu’s role is central to the theme of immortality and the relationship between gods and mortals. Adapa, a mortal priest and servant of the god Ea, accidentally breaks the wing of the south wind, angering Anu. When Adapa is summoned before Anu, Ea warns him not to accept any food or drink offered by the sky god, as it might be the food and water of death. Adapa follows Ea’s instructions, refusing Anu’s offer, but it turns out that Anu had intended to offer him the food and water of immortality. As a result, Adapa misses his chance to become immortal, highlighting the tension between divine knowledge and mortal existence in Mesopotamian thought.
Another significant myth involving Anu is the Kumarbi Cycle, a Hurrian myth known from Hittite sources. In this myth, Anu is overthrown by his servant, Kumarbi, in a violent struggle for power. Kumarbi bites off Anu’s genitals, and as a result, becomes impregnated with several gods, including Teshub, the storm god. This myth of divine succession has parallels with other myths of castration and power transfer, such as the Greek myth of Cronus castrating Uranus. The Kumarbi myth demonstrates Anu’s vulnerability in the face of shifting divine power and the cycle of succession that plays a central role in many ancient mythologies.
Anu’s Worship and Decline
While Anu held a supreme position in the pantheon, his worship was often more symbolic than widespread. His cult did not have the same prominence as those of more active gods like Enlil, Marduk, or Ishtar. In the earlier periods of Mesopotamian history, Anu had no major temples dedicated exclusively to him, though he shared space with other gods in the temples of important cities like Uruk. The so-called “White Temple” in Uruk, which dates to the early Uruk period (3500–3100 BCE), is often associated with Anu, but there is little evidence that Anu was worshipped there exclusively.
Although regarded as the king of the gods and a symbol of divine authority, Anu’s role was largely passive, and he was not widely worshipped.
By the Neo-Babylonian period, Anu’s cult had dwindled, and his role was largely overshadowed by other gods. However, in the Seleucid era (late first millennium BCE), a resurgence of Anu’s worship occurred, particularly in the city of Uruk. The construction of the Bīt Rēš temple, dedicated to Anu and his consort Antu, marked a revival of Anu’s importance in the city’s religious life. The new ziggurat, known as the Ešarra, became a focal point of worship, reflecting a shift in the city’s theological focus from Ishtar to Anu and Antu. This revival may have been influenced by local theological developments, as well as the political and cultural changes brought about by the Hellenistic rulers of the region.
Despite this brief resurgence, Anu’s active worship declined in the following centuries, and by the Parthian period, most of the temples dedicated to Mesopotamian gods, including Anu, had fallen into disuse. The final known cuneiform texts from Uruk, written around the first century CE, mark the end of Mesopotamian religious practices centered around the worship of Anu and other gods.
Anu’s Legacy in Mesopotamian and Global Mythology
Anu’s legacy as the supreme sky god influenced not only Mesopotamian religion but also the religious systems of neighboring cultures. In Hurrian and Hittite mythology, Anu appears as a god involved in the cycle of divine succession, particularly in the myth of Kumarbi and Teshub. This myth, with its themes of castration, rebellion, and the birth of new gods, bears striking similarities to later Greek myths of Uranus and Cronus, suggesting a shared cultural heritage in the ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds.
The influence of Anu may also be seen in the development of other sky gods in the region. In later periods, as the influence of Greek culture spread throughout the Near East, Anu was sometimes equated with Zeus, the Greek king of the gods. Although this association is not well-attested in ancient texts, it reflects the common practice of syncretism, where gods from different cultures were identified with one another based on their similar roles or attributes.
In Mesopotamian theology, Anu’s role as the progenitor of the gods and the ultimate source of divine authority persisted even as his worship waned. The Anunnaki, a group of gods often associated with the underworld and divine judgment, were considered the offspring of Anu, further cementing his status as the father of the gods.
