The Berke–Hulagu War reached its climax at the Battle of the Terek River in 1262. Hulagu marched north through the Derbend pass, seeking to confront Berke. Image: The Battle at the Terek (1262), as described by Armenian historian Hayton of Corycus
The Berke–Hulagu War was a pivotal conflict fought during the 1260s between Berke Khan of the Golden Horde and Hulagu Khan of the Ilkhanate. Centered primarily in the Caucasus Mountains, this war marked a critical juncture in the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire after the death of Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan. The war unfolded concurrently with the Toluid Civil War between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke, highlighting the deepening divisions within the Mongol realm. Below, World History Edu presents a detailed account of the conflict, its background, and its aftermath.
Berke Khan’s Rise to Power
In 1257, Berke Khan assumed leadership of the Golden Horde following the death of his predecessor, Ulaghchi. A devout Muslim since his conversion in 1252, Berke was initially loyal to Möngke Khan, adhering to the concept of Mongol unity. However, the desecration of Muslim lands by Hulagu, particularly the sack of Baghdad in 1258, enraged Berke and set the stage for conflict. Berke’s faith and the economic challenges posed by Ilkhanate policies fueled his eventual decision to go to war.
Hulagu Khan’s Campaigns
Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, led extensive campaigns across the Middle East, destroying Baghdad and advancing into the Levant. His conquests brought vast territories under Mongol rule but also alienated the Muslim population. Despite Berke’s initial reluctance to engage in conflict with a fellow Mongol, the destruction of Muslim cities and Hulagu’s aggressive expansion forced him to reconsider. Hulagu’s hoarding of wealth and restrictions on trade, including a ban on selling slaves to the Mamluks, further escalated tensions.
The Role of the Mamluks
The Mamluks of Egypt emerged as a significant factor in the conflict. After their victory over Hulagu’s forces at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, Berke allied with the Mamluk Sultanate. This alliance aimed to counter Hulagu’s dominance in the region and was instrumental in the subsequent clashes between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate.
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The War
In the early stages of the war, Berke directed Nogai Khan to raid Poland in 1259, acquiring resources to finance his campaign against Hulagu. These raids disrupted European territories and showcased the Golden Horde’s military reach. By 1262, full-scale war erupted, with Berke launching multiple offensives in the Caucasus region.
The conflict reached its climax at the Battle of the Terek River in 1262. Hulagu marched north through the Derbend pass, seeking to confront Berke. However, the Golden Horde, under the command of Nogai Khan, ambushed Hulagu’s forces. The Ilkhanate army suffered a devastating defeat, with many soldiers perishing as the frozen Terek River gave way beneath them. This victory solidified Berke’s dominance in the region and forced Hulagu to retreat to Azerbaijan.
The Berke–Hulagu War was triggered by Berke Khan’s anger over Hulagu Khan’s destruction of Baghdad in 1258 and his rampage through Muslim lands, which violated Berke’s Islamic faith and economic interests.
The Berke–Hulagu War was not an isolated event but part of a broader struggle within the Mongol Empire. While Kublai Khan supported Hulagu, Berke allied with Ariq Böke, intensifying the parallel Toluid Civil War. These intertwined conflicts underscored the fracturing of Mongol unity and the emergence of distinct power centers within the empire.
Key Developments During the War
Berke leveraged both military and diplomatic strategies to weaken Hulagu. He forged strong ties with the Mamluks and supported rebellions against the Ilkhanate in the Georgian Kingdom and Anatolia. Despite setbacks, such as the failure to incite widespread unrest in Anatolia, these efforts highlighted Berke’s commitment to undermining Hulagu’s authority.
To stabilize the western khanates, Kublai Khan dispatched 30,000 reinforcements to Hulagu. However, this support failed to decisively tilt the balance in Hulagu’s favor, as internal divisions and external pressures continued to weaken his position.
The simultaneous civil war between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke further complicated the situation. Although Kublai eventually emerged victorious in 1264, the conflict diverted resources and attention from the western frontier, limiting the effectiveness of Hulagu’s campaigns.
Aftermath
The deaths of Hulagu in 1265 and Berke shortly thereafter marked the end of the war but left a power vacuum in their respective territories. Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also passed away during this period, further destabilizing the Mongol Empire.
Nogai Khan emerged as a powerful figure within the Golden Horde following Berke’s death. Although he never officially ruled, Nogai became a kingmaker, influencing the political landscape of the Golden Horde for years to come.
The Berke–Hulagu War set a precedent for future Mongol infighting. Similar conflicts erupted between other khanates, such as the wars between Abaqa and Baraq in the 1270s, Kaidu and Kublai Khan in the late 13th century, and Duwa and Chapar in the early 14th century. These internal struggles further fragmented the once-unified Mongol Empire.
The war had lasting consequences for both the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate. While the Golden Horde maintained its dominance in the north, the Ilkhanate struggled to recover from its defeats. The economic and political repercussions of the conflict weakened the Ilkhanate’s ability to project power, allowing rivals such as the Mamluks to consolidate their position in the region.
Significance of the Berke–Hulagu War
The Berke–Hulagu War was a turning point in the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire. The divisions between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate reflected broader trends of decentralization and rivalry among the empire’s constituent khanates.
Berke’s Islamic faith played a significant role in shaping the conflict. His alliance with the Mamluks and his opposition to Hulagu’s anti-Muslim campaigns highlighted the growing influence of religion in Mongol politics. This marked a departure from the religious tolerance that had characterized earlier Mongol rule.
The Berke–Hulagu War left a lasting legacy in the regions it affected. It reshaped political alliances, influenced trade routes, and underscored the challenges of maintaining a vast, multiethnic empire. The fragmentation of the Mongol Empire, accelerated by this conflict, paved the way for the emergence of independent states and new power dynamics in Eurasia.
Frequently Asked Questions
How did the Toluid Civil War relate to this conflict?
The Toluid Civil War between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke overlapped with the Berke-Hulagu War. Kublai allied with Hulagu, while Berke supported Ariq Böke, intensifying divisions within the Mongol Empire.
What role did the Mamluks play in the conflict?
The Mamluks defeated Hulagu’s forces at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, which emboldened Berke to ally with them against the Ilkhanate, strengthening their opposition to Hulagu.
What were Berke’s motivations for war despite Mongol brotherhood?
Initially reluctant due to Mongol unity, Berke declared jihad against Hulagu due to the massacre of Muslims, economic damages, and hoarding of resources by the Ilkhanate.
What was the significance of the Battle of the Terek River (1262)?
This battle marked a decisive defeat for Hulagu, as Berke’s forces ambushed and crushed his army, solidifying Berke’s dominance in the region.
How did Kublai Khan influence the conflict?
Kublai sent reinforcements to Hulagu and excluded Berke’s name from the Golden Horde’s official recognition due to his alliance with Ariq Böke and opposition to the Ilkhanate.
What impact did the war have on the Mongol Empire’s unity?
The war, along with the Toluid Civil War, further fractured the Mongol Empire into independent khanates, undermining the unity established under Genghis Khan.
What was Nogai Khan’s role in the aftermath?
Nogai Khan, a key general under Berke, gained prominence as a kingmaker in the Golden Horde, influencing its politics and military strategies after Berke’s death.
