History of Judaism
Judaism is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion that encompasses the spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jewish people. With origins tracing back thousands of years, Judaism is recognized as one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions. Central to the faith is the Mosaic covenant, which establishes a relationship between God and the Israelites, marking Judaism as a path of observance, tradition, and ethical commitment.
Foundational Texts and Teachings
The Torah and the Tanakh
The Torah, comprising the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, is the cornerstone of Jewish religious practice and theology. Known in English as the Pentateuch, these texts recount the creation of the world, the establishment of God’s covenant with humanity, and the formation of the Israelite nation. The broader Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, includes the Torah, the Nevi’im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). Together, these texts provide a theological, historical, and ethical framework for Judaism.
Pages of the Kennicott Bible, which is an illuminated manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, created in 1476 by scribes in the city of A Coruña, Spain.
The Oral Torah
Complementing the written scriptures is the Oral Torah, an interpretive tradition believed to have been transmitted alongside the written law. Compiled in texts such as the Mishnah and Talmud, the Oral Torah elaborates on and interprets the commandments found in the written Torah. It represents centuries of rabbinic thought and debate, emphasizing the dynamic and interpretative nature of Jewish law and theology.
Beliefs and Practices
Judaism is rooted in the belief in one, indivisible God. This ethical monotheism underscores the relationship between God and humanity, emphasizing moral responsibility, justice, and compassion. Central tenets include loving God, adhering to His commandments, and fostering justice within society.
Halakha, the collective body of Jewish law, governs religious practices, ethical behavior, and social interactions. Derived from the Torah, Talmud, and later rabbinic interpretations, halakha encompasses aspects of daily life, including dietary laws (kashrut), Sabbath observance, and ritual practices.
A Torah scroll opened to the Book of Genesis.
Religious Movements
Orthodox Judaism adheres strictly to halakha and views the Torah as divinely revealed and unchangeable. Subgroups include Haredi Judaism, which emphasizes traditional practices and separation from modern secular culture, and Modern Orthodox Judaism, which engages with contemporary society while maintaining strict adherence to Jewish law.
Conservative Judaism seeks to balance tradition and modernity. It upholds the divine inspiration of the Torah while allowing for historical and cultural interpretations of Jewish law. This movement encourages adherence to halakha with some flexibility in its application.
Reform Judaism emphasizes individual autonomy and ethical principles over strict adherence to halakha. It advocates for gender equality, inclusivity, and adaptations to meet the needs of modern Jewish communities.
Other Jewish movements include Reconstructionist Judaism, which views Judaism as an evolving religious civilization, and Humanistic Judaism, which emphasizes Jewish culture and values without theistic belief.
Historical Development
Judaism’s origins lie in the ancient Near East, with patriarchal figures such as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob establishing the foundations of the Israelite identity. The First Temple, built in Jerusalem under King Solomon, became the central place of worship. This period saw the development of Jewish monotheism and the codification of early laws and traditions.
The Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE) marked a transformative period, during which the Jewish people began to develop practices and texts that could be sustained without a central Temple. Upon their return, the Second Temple was constructed, becoming the focal point of Jewish life until its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE.
A model of Second Temple is showcased as part of the Holyland Model of Jerusalem at the Israel Museum.
Following the Temple’s destruction, Rabbinic Judaism emerged as the dominant form of Jewish practice. This era saw the compilation of the Mishnah and Talmud, which provided a framework for Jewish life in the diaspora.
Throughout the Middle Ages, Jewish communities flourished under Islamic rule in regions like Spain, contributing to theology, philosophy, and science. However, they also faced persecution in Christian Europe. The Enlightenment and Emancipation of the 18th and 19th centuries brought new challenges and opportunities, leading to the formation of modern Jewish movements.
Jewish Identity and Community
Judaism encompasses both religious and ethnic identities. Jewish status is traditionally inherited matrilineally or acquired through conversion. While observance varies, shared cultural and historical ties unite Jews globally.
As of 2024, the global Jewish population is estimated at approximately 17 million. The largest communities reside in Israel and the United States, with significant populations in Europe, Latin America, and other regions.
Festivals and Life-Cycle Events
Jewish festivals include Passover (Pesach), commemorating the Exodus from Egypt; Shavuot, celebrating the giving of the Torah; and Sukkot, marking the Israelites’ journey through the wilderness. The High Holy Days, Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, focus on introspection, repentance, and renewal.
Key milestones include brit milah (circumcision), bar and bat mitzvah ceremonies, marriage, and mourning rituals. These events reinforce communal bonds and individual connections to Jewish tradition.
Judaism has profoundly influenced Western civilization, shaping ethical, legal, and cultural norms. Its monotheistic framework and values have informed Christianity and Islam, while Jewish contributions to science, philosophy, and the arts have left a lasting impact.
Important Questions and Answers about Judaism
What are the central texts of Judaism?
The Torah, which includes the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, is Judaism’s most sacred text. It is part of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), which also includes the Nevi’im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). The Oral Torah, represented by the Talmud and Midrash, provides interpretations and expansions on the written texts.
A manuscript copy of the Hebrew Bible.
What is the significance of the Torah?
The Torah serves as the foundation of Jewish law, ethics, and teachings. It is considered divinely revealed to Moses and includes commandments (mitzvot) that guide Jewish life and practice.
What are the main denominations within Judaism?
The major Jewish religious movements are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism. Orthodox Judaism adheres strictly to traditional interpretations of Jewish law (halakha), while Conservative Judaism maintains traditional practices but allows for adaptations. Reform Judaism emphasizes ethical teachings and modernity over ritual observance.
What is halakha?
Halakha refers to Jewish law, derived from the Torah, Talmud, and later rabbinic interpretations. It governs all aspects of Jewish life, including dietary laws (kashrut), Sabbath observance, and ethical conduct.
What is the significance of the Sabbath (Shabbat)?
Shabbat is a weekly day of rest and spiritual renewal, observed from Friday evening to Saturday evening. It commemorates God’s rest after creation and is marked by prayer, family meals, and refraining from work.
What is the role of the synagogue in Jewish life?
The synagogue is a central place for communal worship, Torah study, and community gatherings. It serves as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life.
The Eldridge Street Synagogue in New York City, US.
How do Jews celebrate major festivals?
Major Jewish festivals include Passover (commemorating the Exodus), Rosh Hashanah (New Year), Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), and Sukkot (Festival of Booths). Each festival has specific rituals and symbolic practices tied to Jewish history and theology.
What is the Jewish perspective on God?
Judaism emphasizes ethical monotheism, the belief in a singular, all-powerful God who is both transcendent and involved in the world. God’s covenant with the Jewish people forms the basis of Jewish theology.
What are the 13 Principles of Faith?
Outlined by Maimonides, these principles summarize core Jewish beliefs, including the oneness of God, the divine origin of the Torah, and the eventual arrival of the Messiah. While influential, not all Jews universally adopt these principles.
A bas-relief of Maimonides is displayed in the United States House of Representatives.
What distinguishes Jewish dietary laws?
Known as kashrut, these laws determine what foods are permissible (kosher) and how they must be prepared. Key rules include the prohibition of mixing meat and dairy and restrictions on certain animals like pigs and shellfish.
What is the historical significance of the Jewish diaspora?
The Jewish diaspora refers to the dispersion of Jews from their ancestral homeland, particularly after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. This dispersion has shaped Jewish cultural diversity and resilience throughout history.
How does Judaism view the Messiah?
Judaism holds that the Messiah will be a future leader who will establish peace, rebuild the Temple, and gather Jews to Israel. This belief varies among denominations, with less emphasis placed in some modern movements.
