What is the Cyprus Problem? – History and Major Facts
The Cyprus conflict, commonly referred to as the Cyprus problem, is one of the longest-standing unresolved disputes in the world. It primarily involves tensions between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, exacerbated by international interventions, historical grievances, and conflicting aspirations for sovereignty. Below is a detailed examination of the Cyprus problem, tracing its historical origins, evolution, and contemporary challenges.
Cyprus’ coat of arms
Historical Background: Foundations of Conflict
Cyprus, an island in the eastern Mediterranean, has a history dating back to 9000 BCE. Over centuries, it became a cultural and political crossroads, ruled by Mycenaeans, Egyptians, Persians, Alexander the Great, Ptolemaic Egypt, the Romans, and Byzantines. A predominantly Greek-speaking population emerged under these rulers, forming the core of the Greek Cypriot identity.
In 1571, Cyprus fell under Ottoman control, introducing a significant Turkish Muslim population. This governance lasted three centuries, during which Greek Cypriot aspirations for union with Greece (enosis) began to crystallize. The island’s transfer to British administration in 1878 further complicated the dynamic, as Turkish Cypriots increasingly aligned with Turkey, seeking partition (taksim) as a counter to enosis.
British Colonial Rule: Seeds of Division
Under British colonial rule, tensions escalated as Greek Cypriots pushed for enosis, while Turkish Cypriots resisted, fearing marginalization. By the 1930s, Greek Cypriot unrest culminated in riots, and British authorities imposed harsh measures, including suspending the constitution and exiling leaders.
During World War II, enosis efforts paused but resumed with vigor afterward. The 1950s saw the rise of militant organizations like EOKA, which launched an armed campaign against British rule. In response, Turkish Cypriots organized resistance through the Turkish Resistance Organization (TMT), advocating partition to ensure their security and autonomy.
A flag map illustrating Cyprus’s current division: internationally-recognized Cyprus and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, separated by a UN buffer zone. UK military bases are also shown.
Independence and Constitutional Breakdown (1960–1974)
Cyprus gained independence in 1960 under the Zurich-London Agreements, which established a bi-communal republic with power-sharing between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. However, the complex constitution proved unworkable, with frequent deadlocks over governance and taxation.
In 1963, intercommunal violence erupted, leading to the collapse of the power-sharing government. Thousands of Turkish Cypriots retreated into enclaves, and UN peacekeepers were deployed to maintain order. These events deepened mistrust, with Greek Cypriots viewing Turkish Cypriots as secessionists and Turkish Cypriots perceiving Greek Cypriots as oppressors.
The 1974 Crisis: Coup and Turkish Invasion
In July 1974, a Greek-backed coup aimed to annex Cyprus to Greece. This alarmed Turkey, which invoked its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee to intervene militarily.
Turkey launched an invasion, capturing 36% of the island’s territory in the north. Termed Operation Atilla, the invasion displaced close to a quarter of a million Greek Cypriots and 60,000 Turkish Cypriots, creating a starkly divided island. In 1983, Turkish Cypriot leaders declared independence as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), recognized only by Turkey.
International Response and UN Efforts
The UN established a buffer zone, the “Green Line,” separating the Greek Cypriot south from the Turkish Cypriot north. Numerous UN-sponsored peace talks have sought reunification, proposing a bi-zonal, bi-communal federation. Despite occasional progress, such as the Annan Plan of 2004, these efforts have repeatedly failed due to disagreements over governance, property restitution, and security.
Cyprus joined the EU in 2004 as a divided island. While the entire island is legally part of the EU, the acquis communautaire is suspended in the north. This membership added a new dimension to the conflict, as Greek Cypriots gained leverage while Turkish Cypriots faced economic isolation.
Challenges to Resolution
A central issue is the restitution or compensation for properties abandoned during the 1974 conflict. Greek Cypriots demand the right to return, while Turkish Cypriots argue for compensation and recognition of the demographic changes over decades.
Greek Cypriots seek demilitarization and the removal of Turkish troops, while Turkish Cypriots insist on Turkish guarantees, citing fears of marginalization.
Despite decades of negotiations, a durable solution remains elusive for the Cyprus Problem.
The Greek Cypriot side supports a unified federal state, while Turkish Cypriots increasingly advocate for a two-state solution. This divergence complicates negotiations and international mediation efforts.
Coat of arms used by Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.
Recent Developments and Prospects
In 2014, peace talks were revived, culminating in the Crans-Montana negotiations of 2017. These discussions broke down over disagreements on guarantees and troop withdrawals. Efforts resumed in 2021 but failed to make significant progress.
The election of pro-partition leaders in Northern Cyprus, coupled with growing Turkish influence, has further entrenched divisions. Meanwhile, Greek Cypriots remain steadfast in their rejection of partition
Turkey, Greece, and the UK, as guarantor powers, play pivotal roles in shaping the conflict’s trajectory. Additionally, EU policies and US diplomacy influence the negotiating environment, though often with competing interests.
Pathways to Peace
Incremental steps, such as reopening border crossings and cultural exchanges, have improved relations at the grassroots level. However, these measures alone cannot address the core issues of sovereignty and governance.
While the international community largely supports reunification, a growing number of voices suggest partition as a pragmatic solution. Polls indicate that public opinion among both communities is divided on the preferred outcome.
Open crossings since 2003 allow limited interaction between the communities, fostering dialogue and people-to-people connections.
Peace scholars emphasize the importance of involving civil society in negotiations, moving beyond elite-driven processes. A bottom-up approach may foster trust and address everyday grievances, creating a foundation for lasting peace.
Questions and Answers
What triggered the division of Cyprus?
A 1974 coup by Greek Cypriot nationalists aiming to unite Cyprus with Greece prompted Turkey to invade, leading to the island’s partition.
What is the “Green Line”?
The Green Line is a United Nations buffer zone separating the Greek Cypriot-controlled south and Turkish Cypriot-controlled north.
A photo of the Green Line in Nicosia, Cyprus.
What is the status of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC)?
Declared independent in 1983, the TRNC is recognized only by Turkey and considered an occupied territory by the international community.
What role do guarantor powers play?
Greece, Turkey, and the UK are guarantor powers under the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee, tasked with ensuring Cyprus’ independence and constitutional order.
How has the EU influenced the Cyprus issue?
Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, but EU laws are suspended in the north due to the island’s division, creating tensions in settlement efforts.
What was the Annan Plan?
A 2004 UN-backed proposal for a bi-zonal, bi-communal federation, rejected by Greek Cypriots in a referendum while Turkish Cypriots accepted it.
Why have reunification talks stalled?
Disagreements on key issues such as power-sharing, territory adjustments, security guarantees, and property rights have hindered progress.
What are the main proposed solutions?
Options include a bi-zonal, bi-communal federation, a two-state solution, or maintaining the status quo, with varying levels of support among Cypriots.
How has Turkiye’s involvement affected the conflict?
Turkiye’s military presence, settlement policies, and push for a two-state solution have fueled tensions with Greek Cypriots and the international community.
