The Guerra de Reforma (Reform War), which took place in Mexico between 1857 and 1861, was a bloody civil war fought between the conservative and liberal factions over the future of the nation. This conflict arose from deep political, social, and economic divisions that had plagued Mexico since its independence from Spain in 1821.

The liberal side, led by figures such as Benito Juárez, sought to reform Mexico by reducing the power of the Catholic Church and the military while promoting a more modern, secular state. The conservative side, which represented the interests of the Church, military, and landed elites, fought to maintain traditional social structures and political power.

By 1861, the liberals emerged victorious in the Reform War, and the conservatives were left weakened and marginalized. The reasons for the conservative defeat in the Guerra de Reforma are complex and multifaceted, involving political miscalculations, strategic errors, and socio-economic factors that ultimately favored the liberal side.

In the article below, World History Edu delves into the major factors that contributed to the conservative defeat in the Guerra de Reforma.

Internal Divisions Among Conservatives

One of the key reasons the conservatives lost the Guerra de Reforma was the internal divisions within their ranks. The conservative movement was not a unified front; it was composed of various factions that often had conflicting interests. The conservative bloc included the Catholic Church, large landowners, and the military, but these groups did not always agree on the best course of action to maintain their power and protect their interests.

While the Church sought to preserve its influence over education, land, and social policies, the military and landowners were more concerned with maintaining their economic and political control. These internal divisions weakened the conservatives’ ability to present a united front against the liberal forces. The lack of cohesion meant that conservative leaders often disagreed on strategy, making it difficult to mount a coordinated and effective military campaign.

Moreover, the conservative reliance on authoritarian measures and their opposition to reforms that would benefit the broader population alienated many potential allies, including moderate conservatives and those who might have supported a more conciliatory approach. This fragmentation within the conservative camp was a critical weakness that the liberals exploited.

Superior Liberal Leadership

The liberals benefited from the leadership of several skilled and determined figures, most notably Benito Juárez, who would later become one of Mexico’s most revered historical figures. Juárez was a staunch advocate of liberal reforms and was instrumental in guiding the liberal movement to victory during the Reform War.

Juárez’s vision for Mexico involved the separation of church and state, land reform, and the establishment of a secular legal framework, all of which resonated with a significant portion of the population. His leadership was pragmatic, and he had the ability to inspire loyalty and unity among the liberal forces. Unlike the conservatives, the liberals were able to maintain a more cohesive strategy, with Juárez serving as a stabilizing force.

In contrast, conservative leadership was less effective. The conservative leaders, such as Félix Zuloaga and Miguel Miramón, were unable to galvanize their forces in the same way that Juárez could. Miramón, a talented military officer, made several tactical mistakes during the war, which contributed to key defeats for the conservatives. Zuloaga, who briefly served as the conservative president during the war, was unable to maintain the political support needed to win the conflict. The disorganized and often divided conservative leadership struggled to match the unified and determined liberal leadership.

International Dynamics

Another factor that contributed to the conservatives’ defeat was the changing international dynamics during the Guerra de Reforma. While the conservatives sought support from European powers, particularly Spain and France, they were ultimately unable to secure consistent or meaningful international backing.

The conservatives hoped to maintain Mexico’s traditional ties to Europe, particularly to Catholic monarchies that shared their desire to protect the influence of the Church. However, international circumstances, such as the political situation in Europe and the rise of nationalist movements, made it difficult for the European powers to intervene decisively on behalf of the Mexican conservatives.

The United States, although preoccupied with its own internal issues leading up to the Civil War, largely supported the liberal side in Mexico. The U.S. government, under the administration of President James Buchanan, favored the liberal cause due to its commitment to republicanism and opposition to European influence in the Americas. This support, though not overtly military during the Guerra de Reforma, bolstered the liberal side diplomatically. After the war, U.S. support would become even more critical during the subsequent French intervention in Mexico.

Popular Support for Liberal Reforms

The liberals’ program of reforms garnered significant support from key segments of the population, particularly the middle class, small landowners, and urban workers. These reforms, known as the Leyes de Reforma (Reform Laws), included the Ley Juárez (which abolished special legal privileges for the military and clergy), the Ley Lerdo (which mandated the sale of Church lands), and the Ley Iglesias (which regulated church fees for sacraments and services).

The Leyes de Reforma were aimed at modernizing Mexico and reducing the power of the Catholic Church and the landed aristocracy. These reforms were especially popular among those who had long resented the Church’s vast landholdings and economic power. By redistributing land, promoting secular education, and creating a more egalitarian legal system, the liberals were able to appeal to a broader base of support than the conservatives, who represented entrenched elites.

In rural areas, where the Church held significant sway over the population, support for the conservatives remained strong. However, in urban centers and among more progressive elements of society, the liberals’ call for modernization and reform resonated. The growing desire for change and progress among the population helped the liberals sustain their movement through the war and ultimately achieve victory.

 

Economic Challenges Faced by Conservatives

The conservative forces were also hampered by economic challenges. The conservatives, representing the old aristocracy and the Catholic Church, relied heavily on their traditional sources of income, which were increasingly insufficient to fund a sustained military campaign. The Church, once the wealthiest institution in Mexico, had lost much of its economic power due to the liberal reforms, particularly the Ley Lerdo, which forced the Church to sell off much of its landholdings.

The conservatives also lacked the industrial and economic infrastructure necessary to wage a protracted war. Mexico, at the time, was largely agrarian, and the conservatives’ reliance on rural support limited their access to the financial resources found in urban areas. The liberals, by contrast, had greater access to trade networks, urban centers, and international support, which allowed them to better sustain their war effort.

Moreover, the conservatives’ association with the Church and the landed elite alienated many Mexicans who had been economically oppressed by these institutions. The liberal program of land reform, although imperfect in its execution, promised a more equitable distribution of wealth and resources, which attracted many Mexicans who had little to gain from a conservative victory.

The Role of Foreign Influence

Foreign influence played a significant, though indirect, role in the outcome of the Guerra de Reforma. The conservatives, particularly under Miguel Miramón, sought support from European monarchies, believing that these powers would be sympathetic to their cause and to the protection of the Catholic Church in Mexico. However, European involvement in Mexico was limited during the Reform War, and while the conservatives received some financial and military aid from European backers, it was not enough to turn the tide of the conflict.

France, Spain, and Great Britain all had vested interests in Mexico due to the country’s economic potential and its strategic location. However, these European powers were cautious about getting too deeply involved in Mexico’s internal conflict. They were concerned about provoking the United States, which had expressed its opposition to European intervention in the Americas through the Monroe Doctrine. Thus, while the conservatives hoped for substantial European support, they were left largely on their own during the war.

After the Guerra de Reforma, European intervention did play a major role in Mexico’s history during the French Intervention (1861-1867), when Napoleon III attempted to establish a monarchy under Maximilian I of Mexico. However, during the Reform War itself, foreign support for the conservatives was insufficient to secure a victory.

Liberal Control of Key Regions and Cities

The liberals held control over several key regions and cities during the Guerra de Reforma, which provided them with strategic advantages. Cities like Veracruz became liberal strongholds, providing access to international trade and resources. Veracruz, in particular, was crucial because it allowed the liberals to maintain a link with the outside world, facilitating the import of weapons and supplies.

Additionally, the liberals’ control over Mexico’s central regions gave them a strategic advantage in terms of transportation and communication. They were able to move troops and supplies more efficiently than the conservatives, who were often isolated in rural strongholds. The liberal control of urban centers also meant that they could rally support from the middle class, merchants, and intellectuals, all of whom favored the liberal program of modernization and reform.

Questions and Answers about the Reform War

 

What were the main goals of the Constitution of 1857?

The Constitution of 1857 aimed to limit the political power of the executive branch, reduce the influence of the Catholic Church, promote secularism, modernize the economy, and encourage individual land ownership.

Why did the Constitution of 1857 spark opposition from conservatives and the Catholic Church?

The constitution’s anti-clerical provisions, such as the expropriation of Church property and the separation of church and state, caused fierce opposition from conservatives and the Catholic Church, which saw these reforms as threats to their power and influence.

What was the Lerdo Law and how did it affect Mexican society?

The Lerdo Law forced the sale of Church-owned lands and targeted communal indigenous lands for redistribution, causing discontent among indigenous communities and further intensifying opposition to the liberal reforms.

How did the Catholic Church respond to the new constitution?

The Catholic Church excommunicated civil servants who took the government-mandated oath to uphold the constitution, forcing many Catholics to choose between keeping their jobs or facing excommunication.

Who was General Félix Zuloaga, and what role did he play in the Reform War?

General Félix Zuloaga led conservative forces and issued the Plan of Tacubaya on December 17, 1857, which nullified the Constitution of 1857 and seized control of the government.

How did President Ignacio Comonfort respond to the Plan of Tacubaya?

Initially, President Comonfort supported the Plan of Tacubaya, but as the chaos of the civil war grew, he resigned on January 11, 1858, and went into exile.

Who succeeded Comonfort as the leader of the liberal government, and where was it based?

Benito Juárez succeeded Comonfort as the leader of the liberal government, which was based in Veracruz.

How was the country divided during the Reform War?

The country was divided between two governments: the conservative regime led by Zuloaga in Mexico City, and the liberal government led by Juárez, which established itself in Veracruz.

What advantages did the liberals have that helped them continue fighting the conservatives?

The liberals controlled key coastal regions, including Veracruz, which provided access to vital customs revenue that funded their war efforts.

Which countries supported the conservatives during the Reform War, and which country supported the liberals?

France, Spain, and the United Kingdom supported the conservatives, while the United States backed the liberal government under Juárez.

What was the McLane-Ocampo Treaty, and why did it fail?

The McLane-Ocampo Treaty was an agreement between the liberals and the U.S. that promised financial aid to Juárez in exchange for military and economic rights in Mexico. It failed in the U.S. Senate.

How did the Reform War end?

The Reform War ended with the liberals’ military victory and the surrender of conservative forces on December 22, 1860.

What happened after Benito Juárez returned to Mexico City in 1861?

After returning to Mexico City in January 1861, Juárez held presidential elections in March. Despite the conservative defeat, guerrilla resistance continued, and many conservatives later supported the French intervention and the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire.