Division of the Mongol Empire in the 13th Century
The fragmentation of the Mongol Empire began following the death of Möngke Khan in 1259 during the siege of Diaoyu Castle. With no declared successor, a power struggle ensued among the Tolui family line for the position of khagan, escalating into the Toluid Civil War. Alongside other conflicts, such as the Berke-Hulagu War and the Kaidu-Kublai War, this infighting significantly weakened the authority of the Great Khan.
By the late 13th century, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four khanates: the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Yuan dynasty. Each khanate pursued independent goals, marking the end of a united Mongol Empire.
Dispute Over Succession
The death of Möngke Khan left the Mongol Empire without a clear heir, triggering fierce competition for the title of Great Khan. His brother, Hulagu Khan, halted his military campaign in Syria and retreated, leaving his forces vulnerable. The Mamluks of Egypt exploited this situation and defeated the Mongols at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, marking the end of Mongol expansion westward. Meanwhile, another brother, Kublai Khan, focused on consolidating power in China.
The division began after Möngke Khan’s death in 1259 without an appointed successor, sparking the Toluid Civil War and other conflicts like the Berke-Hulagu and Kaidu-Kublai wars.
Ariq Böke, another sibling, declared himself Great Khan at a kurultai in Karakorum, capitalizing on his proximity to the Mongol heartland. Kublai responded by convening his own kurultai in Kaiping, securing support from senior Mongol princes in China and Manchuria. The competing claims for the title of Great Khan set the stage for the Toluid Civil War.
Civil War Among the Tolui Line
The Toluid Civil War (1260–1264) saw Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke vying for dominance. Kublai’s forces captured key territories in southern Mongolia and blockaded Karakorum, cutting off food supplies and causing famine. Although Ariq Böke briefly recaptured Karakorum, his position weakened due to internal dissent and external pressure. In 1264, Ariq Böke surrendered to Kublai, consolidating Kublai’s position as Great Khan.
However, challenges to Kublai’s authority persisted. Hulagu Khan supported Kublai, but Berke, leader of the Golden Horde, opposed him due to religious and territorial disputes. Berke aligned with the Mamluks and even supported Ariq Böke’s claim. Meanwhile, in the Chagatai Khanate, local leaders like Alghu Khan rejected Kublai’s authority, reflecting the increasing fragmentation of the empire.
Portrait of Kublai Khan.
The Berke-Hulagu Conflict
The Berke-Hulagu War (1262) further deepened divisions within the Mongol Empire. Berke, a devout Muslim, resented Hulagu’s brutal campaigns against Islamic territories and his unequal distribution of spoils. The conflict escalated into open warfare, with Berke allying with the Mamluks. Although Berke aimed to invade Hulagu’s territories, his death in 1266 curtailed his ambitions. Hulagu also passed away in 1265, leaving the Ilkhanate under the leadership of Abaqa Khan.
The Kaidu-Kublai War
Kaidu, a grandson of Ögedei Khan, emerged as another challenger to Kublai’s authority. Leading the Chagatai Khanate and other allies, Kaidu opposed Kublai’s centralization efforts and sought to restore the traditional Mongol capital at Karakorum. The conflict persisted for decades, severely straining Kublai’s resources. Kaidu’s death in 1301 marked the decline of his resistance, but by this time, the empire had already fractured irreparably.
Disintegration into Four Khanates
The Mongol Empire’s division into four khanates became formalized during Kublai Khan’s reign. The Yuan dynasty (China), Ilkhanate (Iran), Golden Horde (Eastern Europe), and Chagatai Khanate (Central Asia) each functioned as independent states, pursuing their own policies and interests. While the Yuan dynasty claimed nominal supremacy, this was largely symbolic, as the khanates operated autonomously and frequently clashed over territory and resources.
The map of the Mongol Empire, showing the various divisions; Golden Horde (yellow), Chagatai Khanate (gray), Great Yuan Dynasty (green), and Ilkhanate (purple).
Yuan Dynasty
Under Kublai Khan, the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) became the most prominent of the khanates. Moving the Mongol capital to Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing), Kublai sought to consolidate his rule over China. By 1279, he had defeated the Song dynasty, completing the conquest of China proper. However, Kublai’s attempts to expand further, such as invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281, ended in failure due to natural disasters and logistical challenges.
The Yuan dynasty faced internal rebellions and economic difficulties, culminating in the Red Turban Rebellion of the 1350s. In 1368, the Ming dynasty overthrew the Yuan, forcing its remnants to retreat to Mongolia, where they persisted as the Northern Yuan dynasty until the 17th century.
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, established by Batu Khan in 1243, controlled vast territories across Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Initially centered in Sarai Batu, the Golden Horde prospered through trade and tribute from Russian principalities. However, internal rivalries among Batu’s descendants and external pressures from rising powers like Muscovy weakened the khanate. By the 15th century, the Golden Horde had fragmented into smaller states, including the Kazan, Astrakhan, and Crimean Khanates. These successor states were eventually absorbed by the expanding Russian Empire.
A drawing depicting Batu Khan establishing the Golden Horde.
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate, named after Genghis Khan’s second son, governed Central Asia, including regions like Transoxiana and Moghulistan. Initially recognizing the Great Khan’s authority, the Chagatai rulers gradually asserted independence. By the mid-14th century, the khanate had splintered into eastern and western regions. The western part fell under the influence of the Timurids, while the eastern part persisted as Moghulistan. The Chagatai Khanate ultimately dissolved in the late 15th century, with its territories absorbed by regional powers.
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, founded by Hulagu Khan, controlled Iran, Iraq, and parts of the Caucasus. Early Ilkhans embraced Buddhism and Shamanism, but later rulers, such as Ghazan Khan, converted to Islam, which became the dominant religion of the khanate. The Ilkhanate experienced a cultural renaissance, with significant advancements in science, art, and literature. However, after the death of Abu Sa’id in 1335, the Ilkhanate disintegrated into smaller states, including the Jalayirid dynasty, which ruled parts of Iran and Iraq.
Legacy of the Mongol Empire’s Division
The division of the Mongol Empire marked the end of one of history’s most powerful and expansive empires. While the khanates continued to influence their respective regions, the unity that had characterized Genghis Khan’s era was irretrievably lost. The fragmentation of the empire facilitated the rise of new powers, such as the Ming dynasty in China, the Timurids in Central Asia, and Muscovy in Eastern Europe.
The division and infighting in the Mongol Empire weakened the Great Khan’s authority, leading to the empire’s split into four khanates.
Despite its dissolution, the Mongol Empire left an enduring legacy, including the dissemination of technologies, cultural exchange along the Silk Road, and the establishment of administrative practices that influenced successor states. The empire’s fragmentation also highlighted the challenges of maintaining a vast, diverse realm, underscoring the limits of even the most formidable military and political systems.
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the four khanates?
The Golden Horde in Eastern Europe, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in Iran, and the Yuan dynasty in China. These khanates operated as independent states despite nominal allegiance to the Yuan.
What was the significance of the Battle of Ain Jalut?
Fought in 1260, it marked the western limit of Mongol expansion. The Mamluks, aided by temporary Crusader support, defeated the Mongols, preventing further conquests into the Middle East.
A painting depicting Mongols at war.
How did Kublai Khan consolidate power?
After Möngke’s death, Kublai convened a rival kurultai to challenge his brother Ariq Böke’s claim. Kublai’s forces defeated Ariq Böke, established a stronghold in southern Mongolia, and secured control of the Yuan dynasty in China.
Why did the Mongol Empire disintegrate?
Infighting among the Toluid line, cultural and territorial independence of the khanates, and lack of military coordination led to fragmentation. By 1304, peace treaties formalized the khanates as separate entities.
What was the Yuan dynasty’s legacy?
The Yuan unified China under Mongol rule, but internal rebellion and economic strife led to its fall in 1368. The dynasty’s remnants survived in Mongolia as the Northern Yuan until 1635.
What caused the decline of the Golden Horde?
Internal rivalries and the rise of Muscovy weakened the Horde. It fractured into smaller khanates that were gradually absorbed by Russia, culminating in the annexation of the Crimean Khanate in 1783.
How did the Chagatai Khanate evolve?
Initially covering Central Asia, it split into western Transoxiana and eastern Moghulistan. Over time, it lost territory to the Timurids and other powers, with its final remnants falling to the Dzungar Khanate in 1680.
What distinguished the Ilkhanate?
Formed by Hulagu Khan, it encompassed Iran and neighboring regions. Early rulers were Buddhist, but later converted to Islam under Ghazan Khan. The Ilkhanate collapsed after Abu Sa’id’s death in 1335, leading to successor states like the Jalayirids.
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