Invasion of Egypt by the Crusaders
In the mid-12th century, Egypt faced political instability due to the crumbling Fatimid Caliphate, weakened by internal disputes and external pressures from the Crusaders and Muslim Syria under the Zengids.
The Kingdom of Jerusalem, led by King Amalric I, saw an opportunity to exploit this fragility, aiming to extend its influence in the Levant and secure control over Egypt’s wealth and resources.
Meanwhile, the Fatimid viziers Shawar and Dirgham vied for power, each seeking external alliances to solidify their positions. Shawar reached out to Nur ad-Din Zengi of Syria for support, while Dirgham allied with the Crusaders. These alliances set the stage for a prolonged conflict involving repeated invasions of Egypt by Amalric and interventions by Nur ad-Din’s forces.
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First Crusader Invasion (1163)
The first invasion of Egypt by King Amalric occurred in 1163, ostensibly due to the Fatimid Caliphate’s failure to pay the annual tribute agreed upon during the reign of Baldwin III. Amalric’s forces marched into Egyptian territory, initially defeating Dirgham’s army at Pelusium.
However, the Egyptians responded by opening the Nile dams, causing widespread flooding that thwarted Amalric’s advance. Forced to retreat, Amalric’s campaign ended without a decisive victory. Meanwhile, Dirgham negotiated with Amalric, offering peace and hostages, but his rival Shawar, supported by Nur ad-Din, prepared for a counteroffensive.
A drawing portraying King Amalric
READ MORE: Timeline of the Crusades
Syrian Intervention and Second Crusader Invasion (1164)
Nur ad-Din dispatched his general Shirkuh, accompanied by his nephew Saladin, to assist Shawar in reclaiming the vizierate. Shirkuh’s forces entered Egypt, defeated Dirgham’s brother at Bilbeis, and restored Shawar as vizier.
However, Shawar resented Shirkuh’s authority and sought aid from King Amalric, forming an alliance against the Syrian forces.
In response, Amalric launched a second invasion, laying siege to Shirkuh’s position at Bilbeis. The siege ended in a stalemate, with both Amalric and Shirkuh agreeing to withdraw. This campaign demonstrated the precarious balance of power in Egypt, where shifting alliances dictated outcomes.
Third Crusader Invasion and Battle of al-Babein (1166–1167)
Shawar’s alliance with Amalric did not last long. In 1166, Shirkuh returned to Egypt to reassert Syrian influence. Amalric, determined to counter Shirkuh, quickly mobilized his forces and secured naval dominance along the Mediterranean coast. This advantage allowed him to reinforce Shawar’s position in Cairo and confront Shirkuh near Giza. The two sides clashed at the Battle of al-Babein, where heavy fighting resulted in an inconclusive outcome. Shirkuh then withdrew to Upper Egypt, but his forces managed to capture Alexandria temporarily. Despite this success, Shirkuh ultimately negotiated a withdrawal, leaving Amalric with a favorable treaty that placed Egypt under Crusader influence.
Fourth Crusader Invasion and Burning of Fustat (1168–1169)
By 1168, relations between Shawar and Amalric had deteriorated, fueled by public resentment of Crusader garrisons in Egypt. Amalric, encouraged by the Knights Hospitaller, launched another invasion, targeting Bilbeis. His forces massacred the city’s population, alienating Egypt’s Coptic Christians and weakening support for the Crusaders. Shawar, realizing the untenability of his alliance with Amalric, appealed once again to Nur ad-Din. Shirkuh returned with a Syrian army, forcing Amalric to retreat. In a desperate move, Shawar ordered the burning of Fustat to prevent its capture by the Crusaders, an event that left the city in ruins for over 50 days. Shirkuh entered Cairo in January 1169, executed Shawar, and assumed control as vizier.
A map illustrating the 4th Crusader invasion of Egypt.
Siege of Damietta (1169) and Byzantine-Crusader Failure
The final major campaign during this period was a joint Byzantine-Crusader attempt to capture Damietta in 1169. Amalric allied with the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, assembling a large fleet and army. However, delays and mistrust between the allies undermined their efforts. By the time they launched their siege, Saladin, who had recently risen to power as Shirkuh’s successor, had fortified Damietta and effectively resisted the attackers. Poor coordination, heavy rains, and dwindling supplies forced the Byzantine-Crusader forces to abandon the siege, marking a decisive failure in their efforts to conquer Egypt.
Rise of Saladin and the Decline of Crusader Ambitions
In 1171, Saladin consolidated his authority by abolishing the Fatimid Caliphate and proclaiming himself Sultan of Egypt under the Abbasid Caliphate. This move unified Egypt with Sunni Muslim Syria, creating a formidable power bloc that threatened the Crusader states. Amalric, recognizing the growing strength of Saladin and Nur ad-Din, shifted his focus to defending Jerusalem. Although the Crusaders managed to maintain their kingdom for another 16 years, they faced increasing pressure from Saladin’s united forces. Subsequent Crusades, such as the Third Crusade led by Richard the Lionheart, attempted to target Egypt as the key to weakening Saladin’s power, but these efforts ultimately failed.
A detailed map illustrating the territorial expansions and conquests achieved under Saladin’s leadership.
Aftermath and Strategic Shifts
The repeated invasions of Egypt from 1163 to 1169 highlighted the strategic importance of the region in the broader conflict between Crusaders and Muslim powers. Egypt’s wealth and resources made it a coveted prize, but its internal divisions also rendered it vulnerable to external manipulation.
However, the rise of Saladin marked a turning point. By uniting Egypt and Syria, he created a powerful state capable of resisting Crusader advances and launching counteroffensives. The failure of the Crusaders to secure a lasting foothold in Egypt shifted the balance of power in the region and set the stage for Saladin’s eventual victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who were the key players in the conflict over Egypt?
The conflict involved King Amalric of Jerusalem, Shawar (the Fatimid vizier), Nur ad-Din Zengi (Syrian emir), and Shirkuh (Nur ad-Din’s general), who was supported by his nephew Saladin.
What was the outcome of Amalric’s first invasion in 1163?
Amalric’s invasion failed after the Egyptians flooded the Nile, forcing him to withdraw. This allowed Shawar to call for Nur ad-Din’s intervention.
Why did Shawar ally with the Crusaders against Shirkuh?
After being reinstated as vizier by Shirkuh, Shawar sought to regain full control of Egypt, leading him to ally with Amalric and launch attacks against Shirkuh’s forces.
What role did Saladin play during the invasions?
Saladin, serving under Shirkuh, helped lead the Syrian forces in Egypt and gained prominence, eventually becoming vizier of Egypt in 1169 after Shirkuh’s death.
A painting of Saladin.
What was the significance of the failed Byzantine-Crusader siege of Damietta in 1169?
The failed siege marked a major setback for the Crusaders and Byzantines, showcasing Saladin’s growing military and strategic capabilities.
How did the conflict end in 1169?
Shirkuh took control of Egypt, executed Shawar, and shortly after his death, Saladin became vizier, consolidating power and shifting Egypt’s allegiance to the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate.
What was the long-term impact of the invasions?
The invasions weakened the Crusaders, bolstered Sunni Muslim control in Egypt, and laid the foundation for Saladin’s rise, uniting Egypt and Syria against the Crusader states.
