John C. Calhoun
John Caldwell Calhoun (1782–1850) was a prominent American statesman and political theorist, known for his fierce advocacy of states’ rights and his role in shaping the antebellum South.
Over his long career, Calhoun held various significant positions, including U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator, Secretary of War, Secretary of State, and Vice President.
His influence on American politics was profound, particularly regarding his defense of slavery and his development of the doctrine of nullification, which argued that states could invalidate federal laws deemed unconstitutional.
Early Life and Education
John C. Calhoun was born on March 18, 1782, in the Abbeville District of South Carolina, into a family of Scotch-Irish immigrants. His father, Patrick Calhoun, was a prosperous farmer and staunch Presbyterian. The young Calhoun grew up in a frontier environment, which profoundly influenced his views on individualism and self-reliance.
Despite the lack of formal educational opportunities in the frontier, Calhoun’s intellectual abilities were evident early on. At the age of 18, he entered Yale College, where he graduated with distinction in 1804. His education continued at the Litchfield Law School in Connecticut, one of the nation’s most prestigious law schools at the time. Calhoun’s legal training and intellectual rigor laid the foundation for his future political career.
Entry into Politics
Calhoun began his political career in 1808, when he was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives. His tenure there was marked by a focus on improving state infrastructure and supporting the War of 1812.
In 1811, Calhoun was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he quickly distinguished himself as a leading “War Hawk,” advocating for war against Britain to defend American honor and maritime rights.
During his time in Congress, Calhoun supported various measures to strengthen the federal government, including the establishment of the Second Bank of the United States and the passage of the Tariff of 1816, which aimed to protect American industries. These positions would later contrast sharply with his staunch advocacy for states’ rights and limited federal power.
Secretary of War
In 1817, President James Monroe appointed Calhoun as Secretary of War. In this role, Calhoun worked to modernize the U.S. military and improve its organizational efficiency. He oversaw the construction of coastal fortifications, the development of a more effective chain of command, and the establishment of the United States Military Academy at West Point as a premier institution for training military leaders.
Calhoun’s tenure as Secretary of War demonstrated his administrative capabilities and his commitment to strengthening national defense. However, his later political philosophy would emphasize state sovereignty over federal authority, reflecting the growing sectional tensions of the period.
Vice Presidency
Calhoun served as Vice President under both John Quincy Adams (1825–1829) and Andrew Jackson (1829–1832). His vice presidency was marked by significant political and personal conflicts, particularly with President Jackson. The most notable of these was the Nullification Crisis, which arose from opposition to the Tariff of 1828, dubbed the “Tariff of Abominations” by its Southern critics.
Calhoun, who had initially supported protective tariffs, became a leading opponent of the Tariff of 1828, arguing that it unfairly favored Northern industries at the expense of Southern agriculture. In response, he authored the “South Carolina Exposition and Protest,” which articulated the doctrine of nullification. This doctrine held that states had the right to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, asserting the sovereignty of states over the federal government.
The Nullification Crisis reached its peak in 1832 when South Carolina passed an ordinance declaring the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void within the state. President Jackson responded forcefully, asserting the supremacy of federal law and threatening military action against South Carolina. The crisis was ultimately resolved through a compromise tariff, but it highlighted the deepening sectional divide and foreshadowed the conflicts leading to the Civil War.
Image: An 1834 portrait of Calhoun, by American artist Rembrandt Peale.
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Did you know…?
John C. Calhoun is one of two vice presidents of the United States that have resigned from their position. The other is Spiro Agnew, who resigned in 1973 and was replaced with Gerald Ford.
Senate Career
After resigning from the vice presidency in 1832, Calhoun was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he served until his death in 1850, with a brief interruption during his tenure as Secretary of State. As a senator, Calhoun became a leading voice for the South, advocating for the protection of slavery and states’ rights.
Calhoun’s political philosophy evolved into a robust defense of slavery as a “positive good,” arguing that it was beneficial for both slaves and slaveholders. He contended that slavery provided a stable and ordered society, contrasting it with the wage labor system of the North, which he viewed as exploitative and unstable. Calhoun’s pro-slavery stance and his eloquent defense of Southern interests made him a central figure in the growing sectional conflict.
Doctrine of Nullification and States’ Rights
Calhoun’s most significant theoretical contribution to American political thought was his doctrine of nullification. Drawing on the ideas of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798, authored by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, Calhoun argued that the Constitution was a compact among sovereign states. Therefore, states had the authority to determine the constitutionality of federal laws and to nullify those they deemed unconstitutional.
Calhoun’s theory was rooted in his belief in the primacy of state sovereignty and his fear of federal overreach. He viewed nullification as a necessary check on federal power, protecting minority rights and preventing the tyranny of the majority. This doctrine was a precursor to the later secessionist arguments that would lead to the Civil War.
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Secretary of State
In 1844, Calhoun was appointed Secretary of State by President John Tyler. His tenure in this role was marked by significant diplomatic achievements, including the negotiation of the annexation of Texas. Calhoun viewed the expansion of slave-holding territory as essential for the preservation of Southern political power and the institution of slavery.
Calhoun’s efforts to secure the annexation of Texas were successful, leading to the admission of Texas as a state in 1845. However, this expansionist policy also intensified sectional tensions by raising the contentious issue of whether new territories would permit slavery, contributing to the growing divide between North and South.
Final Years and Legacy
Calhoun’s final years were dominated by the debate over the extension of slavery into the territories acquired from Mexico following the Mexican-American War. He vehemently opposed the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to prohibit slavery in these new territories. Instead, Calhoun argued that the territories were the common property of all states, and therefore, the federal government had no authority to restrict slavery within them.
In his last major speech, delivered in the Senate in 1850, Calhoun warned of the dire consequences of sectional conflict. He argued that the North’s growing power and its opposition to slavery threatened the Union, and he called for a constitutional amendment to protect Southern rights. Although too ill to deliver the speech himself, it was read by a colleague and left a profound impact on the Senate and the nation.
John C. Calhoun died on March 31, 1850, at the age of 68. His death came at a time of intense national debate over slavery and sectionalism. While his views were deeply divisive, his intellectual rigor and eloquent defense of his principles left a lasting legacy in American political thought.
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Frequently Asked Questions
When and where was John Caldwell Calhoun born?
John Caldwell Calhoun was born on March 18, 1782, in South Carolina.
What role did John C. Calhoun serve in from 1825 to 1832?
John C. Calhoun served as the seventh Vice President of the United States from 1825 to 1832.
How did Calhoun’s views change in the late 1820s?
In the late 1820s, Calhoun’s views shifted from being a nationalist and advocate of a strong federal government to becoming a leading proponent of states’ rights, limited government, nullification, and opposition to high tariffs.
What was Calhoun’s stance on slavery?
Calhoun was a staunch defender of slavery and sought to protect the interests of white Southerners. He argued that slavery was a “positive good” that benefited both slaves and enslavers.
What significant political doctrine did Calhoun develop?
Calhoun developed the doctrine of nullification, which held that states had the right to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional.
How did Calhoun’s beliefs influence the South?
Calhoun’s beliefs significantly influenced the South’s secession from the Union in 1860 and 1861.
What was Calhoun’s role in the House of Representatives?
Calhoun was elected to the House of Representatives in 1810, where he became a prominent leader of the War Hawks and fervently supported the War of 1812.
What position did Calhoun hold under President James Monroe, and what did he accomplish?
Calhoun served as Secretary of War under President James Monroe, where he reorganized and modernized the War Department.
What was the outcome of Calhoun’s 1824 presidential bid?
Calhoun failed to gain sufficient support in the 1824 presidential election and instead agreed to be a candidate for vice president, which he won by an overwhelming majority.
Under which two presidents did Calhoun serve as vice president?
Calhoun served as vice president under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson.
What crisis strained Calhoun’s relationship with President Jackson?
The Nullification Crisis and the Petticoat affair strained Calhoun’s relationship with President Jackson.
When did Calhoun resign as vice president, and what position did he assume afterward?
Calhoun resigned as vice president in 1832 with only a few months left in his second term and was elected to the Senate.
Did Calhoun run for president again after his vice presidency, and what was the result?
Calhoun sought the Democratic Party nomination for president in 1844 but lost to James K. Polk.
What role did Calhoun play in the annexation of Texas?
As Secretary of State under President John Tyler, Calhoun supported the annexation of Texas to extend the Slave Power.
What position did Calhoun take on the Mexican-American War and related issues?
Calhoun opposed the Mexican-American War, the Wilmot Proviso, and the Compromise of 1850.
Image: A portrait of Calhoun during the mid-1840s.
What nickname was Calhoun given later in life, and why?
Calhoun was known as the “cast-iron man” for his steadfast defense of white Southern beliefs and practices.
What was Calhoun’s view on the relationship between minority rights and majority rule?
Calhoun called for a concurrent majority to protect minority rights against majority rule, allowing the minority to block proposals that infringed on their liberties.
Who were the other two members of the “Great Triumvirate” alongside Calhoun?
The other two members of the “Great Triumvirate” were Daniel Webster and Henry Clay.
