Runes: What are they, and where did they originate from?
Runes are an ancient writing system used by Germanic peoples during the first millennium AD and beyond. These symbols formed the basis of runic alphabets, also called runic rows or futharks. The runic scripts were used primarily to write Germanic languages before the adoption of the Latin alphabet. Despite their decline in general use, runes persisted in specialized contexts, including religious, magical, and decorative inscriptions.
The Rök Runestone in Sweden.
READ MORE: The Origins of Language
Origins and Development of Runes
The earliest runic inscriptions date back to around AD 150, with possible earlier examples from AD 50. The origins of runes remain debated among scholars. They likely evolved from Old Italic scripts, such as Raetic, Etruscan, or early Latin alphabets, which were used in Northern Italy and the Alps. The runic script adapted well to being carved into wood and stone due to its angular forms.
Runes are letters in the runic alphabets, used by Germanic peoples from the 1st millennium AD for writing, magic, and divination.
Runes were first used by the Germanic tribes in Scandinavia and Northern Europe, but as Germanic groups migrated and expanded, they brought runes with them. By the late first millennium AD, three primary runic alphabets had emerged: the Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, and the Younger Futhark.
The Runic Alphabets
Elder Futhark (c. 150–800 AD)
The Elder Futhark is the earliest known runic script, consisting of 24 runes. It is named after its first six letters: ᚠ (f), ᚢ (u), ᚦ (th), ᚨ (a), ᚱ (r), and ᚲ (k). This alphabet was used across a wide geographical area, from Denmark and Norway to parts of Germany and England.
Each rune represented both a phoneme (sound) and a meaning. For example, fehu (ᚠ) symbolized wealth or cattle, while raido (ᚱ) signified a journey. These associations likely contributed to the belief that runes held magical or divinatory properties.
The Elder Futhark runes are painted on small, flat stones.
Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (400–1100 AD)
As the Elder Futhark was adapted for use in Old English, additional runes were introduced to account for new sounds in the language. This resulted in the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, which expanded to include up to 33 runes. Some of the added runes included ᚪ (ac, oak) and ᚣ (yr, bow).
The Futhorc was used primarily in England and Frisia but declined after the Norman Conquest, which brought the widespread use of the Latin alphabet. However, some runes persisted in manuscripts and inscriptions for centuries.
Younger Futhark (800–1100 AD)
In Scandinavia, the Elder Futhark evolved into the Younger Futhark, which contained only 16 runes. This simplification occurred alongside phonetic changes in Old Norse. The Younger Futhark had two main variants:
- Long-branch runes (used for inscriptions on stone, particularly in Denmark)
- Short-twig runes (a simplified version used in everyday writing in Sweden and Norway)
Another variation, staveless runes, was used in some regions, characterized by the omission of vertical strokes. The Younger Futhark dominated Viking Age inscriptions and is found on many runestones across Scandinavia.
Runes in Historical Context
As Christian missionaries spread through Europe, they brought the Latin alphabet, which gradually replaced runes for everyday writing. By around AD 700, most Germanic tribes in central Europe had abandoned runes in favor of Latin script. However, in Scandinavia, runes remained in use for a longer period, coexisting with Latin well into the medieval era.
In some regions, runes continued to be used for specialized purposes. For example, in Sweden, runes appeared on runic calendars (primstav) into the early modern period. In rural Dalarna, runes were employed decoratively until the 20th century.
Runes were not just a writing system; they also held spiritual significance. Many scholars believe they were used in magical inscriptions, blessings, and curses. Some early inscriptions contain cryptic words or symbols that suggest they had ritual functions.
Runology is the academic study of runic alphabets, inscriptions, and their historical and linguistic significance.
The 6th-century Björketorp Runestone in Sweden, for example, bears an inscription warning of a curse upon anyone who disturbs it. Similarly, the Gummarp Runestone contains three repetitions of the f rune, which some interpret as a magical formula.
Norse mythology attributes the discovery of runes to Odin, the chief of the gods. According to the Hávamál, Odin sacrificed himself by hanging from Yggdrasil, the world tree, for nine nights to gain wisdom and the knowledge of runes. This myth emphasizes the mystical nature of runes and their association with divine knowledge.
Later Evolution and Medieval Use
By the medieval period (1100–1500), the runic system had expanded again to include more characters, better accommodating the phonetics of Old Norse. These are known as medieval runes, used alongside Latin script.
The Dalecarlian runes, a unique runic system from the Swedish province of Dalarna, persisted from around 1500 until the 19th century. They represent a blend of medieval runes and Latin letters, indicating that some rural communities continued to use runes long after they had disappeared elsewhere.
Modern Revival and Popular Culture
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, during the rise of Romantic nationalism, runes became symbols of national identity, particularly in Germany and Scandinavia. Some mystics and occultists ascribed esoteric meanings to runes, leading to the development of runic divination systems.
Unfortunately, runes were also appropriated by Nazi ideology. The SS insignia, for example, was based on the sowilo rune (ᛋ), symbolizing the sun. This association has led to controversy regarding the display of certain runic symbols in modern times.
J.R.R. Tolkien, a philologist, used runes in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, adapting the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc as a writing system for the Dwarves. Runes have also appeared in fantasy novels, video games, and role-playing games, where they are often depicted as magical glyphs.
The Bluetooth logo is an example of runes in modern branding. It combines the runes ᚼ (hagall) and ᛒ (bjarkan), representing the initials of Harald Bluetooth, the Viking king of Denmark.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between Futhark and runic alphabets?
Futhark refers to specific runic alphabets, such as Elder and Younger Futhark, named after their first six letters, while “runic alphabets” is a general term for all runic writing systems.
What are the main types of runic alphabets?
The three best-known are Elder Futhark (150–800 AD), Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (400–1100 AD), and Younger Futhark (800–1100 AD).
The reverse of the Rök runestone features Elder futhark runes written at the bottom.
When and where did runes originate?
The earliest secure runic inscriptions date to around AD 150, though some evidence suggests they may have appeared as early as AD 50.
Runes likely evolved from Old Italic scripts, such as Raetic, Venetic, or Etruscan, influenced by the Latin alphabet.
Why were runes replaced by the Latin alphabet?
The adoption of Christianity led to the widespread use of the Latin alphabet, replacing runes for most purposes by around AD 1100.
Did runes have meanings beyond phonetics?
Yes, some runes, known as Begriffsrunen, also represented concepts, such as fehu (wealth) or algiz (protection).
Were runes used for magic or divination?
Some sources, like Hávamál and Tacitus’s Germania, suggest runes were used for magic and divination, but direct archaeological evidence is limited.
What was the Younger Futhark used for?
It was the primary script of the Viking Age, evolving into Medieval and Dalecarlian runes for inscriptions and manuscripts.
What is the oldest runic inscription?
The Vimose Comb (c. AD 150–200) bears the oldest confirmed runic inscription, reading “Harja.”
Runes are found in New Age esotericism, Germanic neopaganism, fantasy literature, video games, and even technology (e.g., the Bluetooth logo).
Did runes persist beyond the medieval period?
Yes, runes were still used in rural Sweden until the early 20th century for decoration and on runic calendars.
What is the connection between runes and Norse mythology?
Norse mythology attributes runic knowledge to Odin, who discovered them through self-sacrifice, as described in Hávamál.
What is the significance of runes in names?
Many Old Norse and Germanic names include rune-related elements, such as Guðrún (“God-rune”) and Alfrún (“Elf-rune”).
