Léon Gambetta was one of the most influential French political figures of the late 19th century, playing a critical role in the establishment and stabilization of the French Third Republic. His career spanned significant moments in France’s history, including the collapse of the Second Empire, the Franco-Prussian War, and the founding of a republican government that would last until World War II.

Gambetta’s oratory skills, political acumen, and unwavering dedication to republican principles made him a towering figure in French politics. His life, marked by early adversity, was dedicated to advancing the cause of democracy and the empowerment of the middle and working classes.

Early Life and Education

Léon Gambetta was born on April 2, 1838, in Cahors, a town in southern France. His father, Joseph Gambetta, was an immigrant from Genoa, Italy, who had settled in France and opened a grocery store.

His mother, Massabie Gambetta, was French, and together they raised their children in a modest but hardworking household.

Gambetta’s Italian roots and his father’s background as a small business owner played significant roles in shaping his worldview, particularly his understanding of the struggles faced by the petite bourgeoisie (the small middle class) and working people. These experiences would inform his future political career, as he consistently advocated for the rights of small businesses, workers, and the middle class.

At the age of 15, Gambetta suffered a life-changing accident that resulted in the loss of sight in his right eye. Despite this disability, he showed remarkable resilience and intellectual curiosity, excelling in his studies. His determination to overcome challenges became a hallmark of his personality and career. After completing his early education, Gambetta worked for a time in his father’s grocery shop, where he developed a strong sense of responsibility and independence.

In 1857, Gambetta moved to Paris to pursue legal studies at the Faculty of Law. Paris, in the mid-19th century, was not only the political and cultural heart of France but also a center of intellectual and political ferment. The Quartier Latin, where the university was located, was a hotbed of political activism, especially among students who were increasingly critical of the Second Empire under Napoleon III. Gambetta quickly became involved in these political discussions and emerged as a leader among the student activists. His fierce opposition to the authoritarian regime of Napoleon III and his powerful oratory began to gain him recognition within these circles.

Early Legal Career and Entry into Politics

Gambetta’s legal career officially began in 1859 when he was called to the bar. Two years later, in 1861, he was admitted to the prestigious Conférence Molé, an influential lawyers’ association that functioned as both a professional and political training ground.

In a letter to his father, Gambetta described the Conférence as “a veritable political assembly,” where members debated legislative proposals and discussed the political issues of the day. This environment sharpened his rhetorical skills and deepened his understanding of parliamentary procedures, preparing him for the political career that lay ahead.

However, Gambetta’s rise to national prominence came not through his legal career but through his involvement in a high-profile political trial in 1868. That year, he was chosen to defend the journalist Delescluze, who was being prosecuted for advocating the construction of a monument to a republican representative, Baudin, who had been killed while resisting Napoleon III’s coup d’état in 1851. Seizing the opportunity, Gambetta used the courtroom as a platform to deliver a passionate denunciation of the Second Empire, attacking both the coup and the authoritarian government it had created. His speech electrified the public and transformed him into a leading figure of the republican opposition.

Election to the Assembly and Rise in Politics

In May 1869, Gambetta’s newfound fame led to his election to the French Legislative Assembly, representing both a district in Paris and one in Marseille. He chose to represent Marseille, a working-class city with strong republican sentiments.

As a member of the Assembly, Gambetta became a prominent advocate for the working class and the middle class, vocally opposing the Second Empire. His speeches in the Assembly, filled with vigor and conviction, quickly established him as one of the most influential orators in France.

Gambetta’s political ideology was heavily influenced by Le Programme de Belleville, a manifesto of 17 radical reforms that outlined the core principles of the French republican movement during the late 19th century.

The manifesto called for universal male suffrage, free public education, the separation of church and state, and other reforms aimed at creating a more egalitarian society. Gambetta’s commitment to these principles placed him at the forefront of the radical wing of the republican movement.

In addition to his role in the Assembly, Gambetta became involved in Freemasonry in 1869, joining the “La Réforme” lodge in Paris. Freemasonry, with its emphasis on liberty, equality, and fraternity, provided Gambetta with another avenue to advance his republican ideals. Through the lodge, he formed connections with other influential political figures, including Gustave Naquet and Maurice Rouvier, both of whom would play significant roles in French politics.

Gambetta and the Franco-Prussian War

The Franco-Prussian War, which broke out in 1870, was a defining moment in Gambetta’s political career. Although he opposed the declaration of war, believing that France was unprepared for a conflict with Prussia, he did not refuse to support military funding, recognizing the necessity of defending the country once war had been declared. The war quickly turned disastrous for France, culminating in the capture of Emperor Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan in September 1870.

With the emperor in captivity and the French military in disarray, protests erupted across Paris, calling for the end of the Second Empire. On September 4, 1870, Gambetta stood on the steps of the Hôtel de Ville (City Hall) and proclaimed the establishment of the French Third Republic. This dramatic moment marked the beginning of a new era in French politics, and Gambetta was immediately appointed as one of the key members of the Government of National Defense, taking on the role of Minister of the Interior.

Gambetta quickly recognized the need to relocate the government away from Paris, which was under threat from the advancing Prussian forces. He urged his colleagues to move the government to a provincial city, but this suggestion was rejected. In a bold move, Gambetta left Paris on October 7, 1870, in a hot-air balloon, one of the only means of escape from the city, which was now surrounded by Prussian troops. He flew to Tours, where he took control of both the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of War, working tirelessly to organize a new French army.

With the assistance of Charles de Freycinet, a talented young military engineer, Gambetta began to assemble a new force to resist the Prussians. His efforts were impressive, but the odds were stacked against him. The French forces were ultimately overwhelmed, and the surrender of the French army at Metz under General Bazaine in October 1870 marked the definitive collapse of the French resistance. By early 1871, it was clear that France had been decisively defeated.

Post-War Politics and Opposition to the Paris Commune

Following the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, France was thrown into political chaos. In the general elections of February 1871, Gambetta had hoped for a republican majority, but the conservatives and monarchists won the majority of seats in the National Assembly. Adolphe Thiers, an Orléanist and a veteran politician, emerged as the dominant figure in post-war France. Gambetta, disillusioned with the Assembly’s decision to seek peace with Prussia, resigned and left France for a brief period of self-imposed exile in Spain.

During this time, the Paris Commune, a radical socialist government, took control of the capital in March 1871. Although Gambetta had previously aligned himself with the radical wing of the republican movement, he opposed the Commune. He saw it as a dangerous insurrection that threatened the fragile stability of the new republic. His opposition to the Commune can be partly explained by his middle-class background, which made him wary of working-class uprisings that could jeopardize the petite bourgeoisie’s hard-won social and economic gains.

Return to Politics and the Founding of the Third Republic

After the fall of the Paris Commune in May 1871, Gambetta returned to France and resumed his political career. In November 1871, he founded La République française, a newspaper that quickly became one of the most influential publications in the country. Through his editorials and public speeches, Gambetta continued to advocate for republican ideals, but he now embraced a more moderate form of republicanism, recognizing the need for compromise to stabilize the fragile Third Republic.

One of Gambetta’s most significant public addresses during this period was his speech at Grenoble in September 1872. In this speech, Gambetta called for a republic led by a “new social level” (une couche sociale nouvelle), referring to the petite bourgeoisie, the class to which his father had belonged. This marked a shift in Gambetta’s political strategy, as he sought to appeal to the middle classes and adopt a more pragmatic approach to republican governance.

When Adolphe Thiers resigned as president in 1873, Gambetta played a key role in ensuring that the transition to a new republican government was smooth. He advocated for moderation and compromise, urging his supporters to avoid radicalism. His efforts culminated in the passage of the French Constitutional Laws of 1875, which established the framework for the French Third Republic. This period marked the beginning of what would become known as the “Opportunist” phase of Gambetta’s political career, in which he pursued practical, incremental reforms rather than radical changes.

Clericalism and the Crisis of 1877

In 1877, Gambetta became embroiled in a major political crisis that would test the strength of the fledgling Third Republic. The conservative President of France, Marshal Patrice MacMahon, attempted to align the government with monarchist and clerical interests, threatening the republic’s secular foundations. Gambetta, a staunch defender of the separation of church and state, famously declared, “Clericalism is the enemy!” His strong opposition to the influence of the Catholic Church in politics became a defining feature of his later career.

The crisis reached its peak in May 1877, when MacMahon dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and called for new elections in an attempt to strengthen the conservative government. In response, Gambetta embarked on a national campaign to rally republican voters, delivering a famous speech in Lille on August 15, 1877, in which he demanded that MacMahon “submit or resign.” The elections that followed were a resounding victory for the republicans, and MacMahon, faced with the overwhelming support for republicanism, ultimately resigned in 1879.

The Grand Ministère and Final Years

Although Gambetta had played a critical role in defending the republic during the crisis of 1877, his own attempt to lead the government was short-lived. In 1881, he was appointed Prime Minister and formed what became known as Le Grand Ministère, a cabinet that many hoped would bring lasting stability to the republic. However, his administration lasted only 66 days, as internal divisions and fears that Gambetta sought to establish a dictatorship led to its collapse.

Despite this setback, Gambetta remained a central figure in French politics until his untimely death on December 31, 1882, at the age of 44. He died from complications related to cancer, a tragic loss for the Third Republic, which was still in its formative years. Gambetta’s personal life had been marked by his long-standing relationship with Léonie Léon, his confidante and advisor, who had been a constant source of support throughout his career.

Legacy

Léon Gambetta’s legacy is one of unwavering commitment to the principles of republicanism and democracy. He was instrumental in the creation of the French Third Republic and helped establish a political system that would endure for nearly 70 years. His oratory, political strategy, and dedication to the empowerment of the middle and working classes made him one of the most important figures in modern French history. In recognition of his contributions, a monument to Gambetta was unveiled in Bordeaux in 1905, and his name remains synonymous with the struggle for democratic governance in France.

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Questions and Answers

Where and when was Léon Gambetta born?

Léon Gambetta was born on April 2, 1838, in Cahors, France.

His father, Joseph Gambetta, was a Genoese grocer, and his mother, Massabie, was French.

What was Gambetta’s early life like?

Gambetta lost the sight in his right eye due to an accident, but he continued to excel in his studies despite this disability.

Before studying law, he worked at his father’s grocery store in Cahors.

Gambetta became involved in student politics and emerged as a strong opponent of Emperor Napoleon III, gaining influence among his peers.

What role did the Conférence Molé play in Gambetta’s career?

The Conférence Molé, an influential lawyers’ association, helped Gambetta refine his public speaking skills and prepared him for a political career.

What event marked Gambetta’s rise to national prominence in 1868?

Gambetta defended journalist Delescluze in 1868, launching a passionate attack on Napoleon III’s regime, which made him a national figure.

In what year was Gambetta elected to the French Assembly, and which constituencies did he represent?

He was elected to the Assembly in 1869, representing both Paris and Marseille, though he chose to represent Marseille.

Le Programme de Belleville, a manifesto of 17 radical political reforms, guided his early career and the Third Republic.

What was Gambetta’s role during the Franco-Prussian War?

Gambetta opposed the war but supported military funding. After France’s defeat, he proclaimed the French Third Republic and took on leadership roles in the Government of National Defense.

Gambetta left Paris in a gas-filled balloon on October 7, 1870, to reach Tours and lead the war effort from there.

Despite organizing a new army, the French defeat at Metz under General Bazaine made Gambetta’s efforts to relieve Paris unsuccessful.

Why did Gambetta resign after the 1871 elections?

After conservative and monarchist candidates won the majority in the elections, Gambetta resigned, disappointed by the Assembly’s unwillingness to continue the war.

What significant newspaper did Gambetta establish in 1871?

He founded La République française, which became one of the most influential newspapers in France.

Gambetta called for a republic led by the petite bourgeoisie, advocating for a more moderate republicanism.

What role did Gambetta play in the passage of the French Constitutional Laws of 1875?

Gambetta played a key role in passing the laws that laid the foundation for the Third Republic, promoting his policy of “opportunism.”

In 1877, he went on to declare, “Clericalism is the enemy!” in opposition to the influence of the Church in government.

How did Gambetta influence the resignation of President MacMahon in 1879?

Gambetta delivered a famous speech demanding that MacMahon “submit or resign,” leading to MacMahon’s resignation.

In 1879, Gambetta became President of the Chamber of Deputies and advocated for amnesty for the Communards and reforms to the voting system.

What led to the downfall of Gambetta’s government in 1881?

His administration, Le Grand Ministère, fell after just 66 days due to fears that he sought to establish a dictatorship.

When did Léon Gambetta die, and what was the cause?

Léon Gambetta died on December 31, 1882, at the age of 44, from complications related to cancer.

How was Gambetta’s legacy honored after his death?

A monument was erected in Bordeaux in 1905, and Gambetta is remembered as one of the founding figures of the French Third Republic.