Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik (c. 675–717) served as the seventh Umayyad caliph from 715 until his death.

Summary

Son of Caliph Abd al-Malik and Wallada bint al-Abbas, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik began his career governing Palestine, where he founded Ramla and its White Mosque, transforming the city into a key economic and administrative hub.

Upon becoming caliph, Sulayman replaced many of his brother al-Walid I’s appointees, curbing expansion due to resistance and military losses, including the failed siege of Constantinople. He died during the siege, choosing his cousin Umar as successor.

Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik’s reign coincided with the Hijra’s centennial, earning him messianic acclaim among poets.

Early Life and Lineage

Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan was born around 675 CE in Medina, a significant city in the early Islamic world. He hailed from the illustrious Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe, a lineage that played a crucial role in the establishment and governance of the Umayyad Caliphate.

His father, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, was a prominent Umayyad caliph who reigned from 685 to 705 CE, known for his administrative reforms and consolidation of the Caliphate’s territories. Sulayman’s mother, Wallada bint al-Abbas, was a descendant of Zuhayr ibn Jadhima, a notable 6th-century leader of the Banu Abs tribe, adding to Sulayman’s distinguished heritage.

Raised partly in the desert by his Banu Abs relatives, Sulayman’s early upbringing was deeply influenced by the tribal dynamics and the prevailing political turbulence of the time, shaping his future leadership qualities and political acumen.

Political Turbulence and Umayyad Consolidation

Sulayman’s birth occurred during the reign of Mu’awiya I, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty, which was established in 661 CE. Following Mu’awiya I’s death, his successors Yazid I and Mu’awiya II ruled briefly but faced significant challenges.

The deaths of Yazid I in 683 CE and Mu’awiya II in 684 CE precipitated a profound decline in Umayyad authority. This period of instability saw widespread support for Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, a non-Umayyad based in Mecca, who was widely recognized as the caliph by many provinces.

The Umayyads, including young Sulayman, were compelled to flee Medina, seeking refuge in Syria. There, supported by loyal Arab tribes, Sulayman’s grandfather, Marwan I, was elected caliph, effectively reasserting Umayyad control over Syria and Egypt by 685 CE. Marwan I’s consolidation efforts were furthered by Sulayman’s father, Abd al-Malik, who succeeded him and continued to strengthen Umayyad dominance across the entire Caliphate by 692 CE, restoring stability and expanding the empire’s reach.

Governorship of Palestine

Appointed by his father, Abd al-Malik, Sulayman became the governor of Jund Filastin, the military district of Palestine. He succeeded Yahya ibn al-Hakam and his half-brother Aban ibn Marwan in this pivotal role.

Sulayman’s governance was marked by significant administrative and religious duties, including leading the Hajj rituals in Mecca in 701 CE. His tenure spanned the reign of his brother, Caliph al-Walid I, from 705 to 715 CE. During this period, Sulayman forged strong alliances with local Yamani chieftains, aligning himself with influential tribal leaders who dominated the region.

A key figure in Sulayman’s administration was Raja ibn Haywa al-Kindi, a respected Yamani religious scholar who not only mentored Sulayman but also served as his senior advisor. Raja’s guidance was instrumental in shaping Sulayman’s political and administrative strategies, ensuring effective governance and fostering a stable relationship with the tribal nobility of Palestine.

Founding of Ramla

One of Sulayman’s most enduring contributions as governor was the establishment of the city of Ramla. Dissatisfied with the limitations and existing infrastructure of Lydda, the original provincial capital, Sulayman sought to create a more strategically positioned and administratively efficient center.

The foundation of Ramla was driven by both personal ambition and practical considerations, allowing for greater control and development outside the constraints of the older urban center. The initial construction included Sulayman’s palatial residence, which doubled as the administrative hub, and the central congregational mosque, later known as the White Mosque.

Although the mosque was completed during the reign of his successor, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, Ramla rapidly developed into a vibrant market town. It attracted agricultural trade, craftsmanship, and religious scholarship, becoming the economic and administrative heart of Palestine.

The relocation of many inhabitants from Lydda to Ramla under Sulayman’s directive ensured the new city’s prominence, effectively sidelining Lydda and marking a significant shift in the region’s urban landscape.

Rise to Caliphate

Sulayman’s ascent to the caliphate occurred following the death of his brother, Caliph al-Walid I, in February 715 CE. Al-Walid had attempted to secure the succession for his own son, Abd al-Aziz, but Sulayman steadfastly refused to accept this change, despite offers of financial incentives. His refusal paved the way for his unopposed accession to the caliphate.

Upon assuming the caliphate, Sulayman moved swiftly to consolidate his authority, recognizing the importance of establishing his legitimacy and control over the vast Umayyad territories. This strategic reshuffling was crucial in mitigating the influence of powerful figures like al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, the viceroy of Iraq and the eastern parts of the Caliphate, whom Sulayman had come to distrust during his governorship in Palestine.

Consolidation of Power and Administrative Reforms

Upon becoming caliph, Sulayman undertook significant administrative reforms aimed at strengthening Umayyad control and reducing the influence of rivals.

One of his first actions was to replace most of al-Walid’s and al-Hajjaj’s provincial governors with loyalists who were aligned with his vision for the Caliphate. This strategic reshuffling was intended to ensure that the provinces were governed by individuals who were loyal to Sulayman, thereby centralizing authority and enhancing the stability of the empire. Among his notable appointments was Yazid ibn al-Muhallab as governor of Iraq, reflecting Sulayman’s preference for trusted allies over established appointees linked to al-Hajjaj.

In the eastern provinces, Sulayman made the decisive move to dismiss Qutayba ibn Muslim, a formidable military leader in Transoxiana. Qutayba’s dismissal led to significant instability, as he attempted to rebel against Sulayman’s authority but was ultimately killed by his own troops. Similarly, Sulayman dismissed and executed Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, the conqueror of Sind, demonstrating his commitment to purging the administration of those closely associated with al-Hajjaj.

In the western regions, Sulayman removed Musa ibn Nusayr, the governor of Ifriqiya and conqueror of al-Andalus, and had his son Abd al-Aziz assassinated. These actions underscored Sulayman’s dedication to reshaping provincial leadership to align with his governance, reducing potential opposition, and consolidating his control over the expansive Umayyad territories.

Military Campaigns and the Siege of Constantinople

Despite his administrative reforms, Sulayman maintained the Umayyad tradition of militarism. However, his reign did not witness the same level of territorial expansion achieved by his predecessors. The ambitious campaigns in regions like Transoxiana and Sind faced setbacks due to effective local resistance and the fragmentation of Arab military leadership following the deaths of key commanders like Qutayba ibn Muslim. As a result, Sulayman’s focus shifted primarily to the ongoing conflict with the Byzantine Empire, the most formidable adversary of the Umayyad Caliphate.

The culmination of Sulayman’s military efforts was the historic siege of Constantinople from 717 to 718 CE. Mobilizing his forces from Dabiq in northern Syria, Sulayman orchestrated a massive campaign aimed at capturing the Byzantine capital. Although he was too ill to lead the campaign personally, he delegated command to his half-brother, Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik.

Concurrently, the Umayyad navy, under commanders like Umar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari, launched parallel naval assaults on the city. Additionally, Sulayman dispatched his son Dawud to lead a summer offensive, which resulted in the temporary capture of Hisn al-Mar’a near Malatya.

Despite these concerted efforts, the siege ultimately ended in failure for the Umayyads. The Byzantine defenders successfully repelled the Arab fleet, and Maslama’s forces were unable to breach the city’s formidable defenses. The heavy losses sustained during the campaign forced the Umayyads to withdraw, marking a significant setback in their military ambitions.

The failed siege not only halted the immediate goal of conquering Constantinople but also led to a strategic retrenchment, stabilizing the frontier between the two empires along the Taurus and Anti-Taurus Mountains. This stalemate persisted for centuries, shaping the geopolitical landscape of the region and underscoring the limits of Umayyad military expansion under Sulayman’s reign.

Death and Succession

Sulayman’s death occurred in September 717 CE in Dabiq during the siege of Constantinople. The circumstances of his death were likely related to illness, exacerbated by the rigors of military mobilization and the pressures of leading the vast Umayyad Caliphate. His passing left the Umayyad leadership in a state of uncertainty, particularly as his chosen successor, his eldest son Ayyub, had predeceased him earlier that year due to a devastating plague known as the ta’un al-Ashraf, which afflicted Syria and Iraq.

Faced with the loss of his designated heir, Sulayman made the unconventional decision to nominate his cousin, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, as his successor. This choice defied the typical Umayyad practice of favoring direct descendants, instead selecting a capable and trusted family member. The nomination was facilitated by Raja ibn Haywa al-Kindi, Sulayman’s trusted advisor, who played a crucial role in securing Umar’s succession.

Raja ensured the allegiance of Sulayman’s brothers and mitigated potential disputes within the ruling family by leveraging his influence and connections. This smooth transition was essential in maintaining the stability of the Caliphate during a period of potential vulnerability following Sulayman’s untimely death.

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik’s reign, though brief, was marked by significant administrative reforms, ambitious military campaigns, and important urban development projects. His establishment of Ramla as the new capital of Palestine underscored his commitment to effective governance and urban planning. Ramla’s strategic location and economic vitality set the stage for its enduring importance in the region, serving as the administrative and economic heart of Palestine long after Sulayman’s death.

Despite these achievements, Sulayman’s legacy is often overshadowed by the accomplishments of his successor, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, who is frequently lauded as one of the most capable Umayyad caliphs. Historical and literary sources present a mixed view of Sulayman. Contemporary poets like al-Farazdaq and Jarir celebrated him in messianic terms, portraying him as the Mahdi—a divinely guided leader destined to restore justice and order. This reverence was partly fueled by the approaching centennial of the Hijra and the collective hope for the successful conquest of Constantinople during his reign.

Conversely, Islamic tradition also depicts Sulayman as having led a licentious life, characterized by gluttony and promiscuity, which contrasts sharply with his political and religious affiliations. Despite these personal flaws, Sulayman’s political alliances and patronage of the pious demonstrated a nuanced approach to governance, balancing personal indulgences with public responsibilities.

Historians like Reinhard Eisener and Muhammad Abdulhayy Shaban highlight the complexities and ambiguities surrounding Sulayman’s rule. The short duration of his caliphate makes it challenging to fully evaluate his impact, and much of the historical narrative focuses on his successor’s more extensive and effective governance. Sulayman’s attempts to integrate the mawali (non-Arab Muslim converts) into the military hierarchy and his policies towards them remain subjects of debate among scholars. Some traditional accounts suggest that he implemented progressive measures for the integration of the mawali, but these are viewed skeptically by modern historians due to limited and conflicting sources.

Sulayman’s familial ties further solidified his position within the Umayyad dynasty. He was married to four women from various branches of the Umayyad family, strengthening alliances and ensuring loyalty within the ruling clan. His wives included notable figures like Umm Aban bint Aban and Umm Yazid bint Abd Allah, the latter being the mother of several of his sons who continued his lineage.

Sulayman’s progeny remained influential in Palestine, maintaining strong connections with the Yamani tribal nobility and holding significant properties until the Abbasid Revolution in 750 CE, which marked the end of Umayyad rule. Some of his descendants, particularly from the lines of Dawud and Abd al-Wahid, were recorded as living in the Umayyad emirate and caliphate of al-Andalus, contributing to the dynasty’s legacy in the western Islamic world.

In assessing Sulayman’s reign, historians emphasize the significant administrative and military efforts he undertook to maintain and strengthen the Umayyad Caliphate. His foundation of Ramla and his efforts to centralize authority through administrative reforms were notable achievements that had a lasting impact on the governance and urban development of the Caliphate. However, his military endeavors, particularly the failed siege of Constantinople, highlighted the limitations of Umayyad expansion under his leadership and underscored the resilience of the Byzantine Empire.

Sulayman’s decision to appoint Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz as his successor ensured a smooth transition of power and set the stage for subsequent Umayyad governance. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz’s reign would later be remembered as a period of reform and relative stability, further enhancing the Umayyad legacy. Sulayman’s ability to navigate the complex political landscape of his time, balancing tribal alliances, administrative reforms, and military campaigns, demonstrates his significance as a ruler who sought to sustain and enhance the Umayyad Caliphate during a period of both internal consolidation and external challenges.

Conclusion

Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan’s life and reign were characterized by strategic administrative reforms, ambitious but ultimately unsuccessful military campaigns, and significant urban development projects. His establishment of Ramla and efforts to centralize Umayyad authority were key achievements that contributed to the stability and governance of the Caliphate. Despite the brevity of his rule and the mixed historical assessments of his character and policies, Sulayman remains a noteworthy figure in the history of the Umayyad dynasty, embodying the complexities and challenges of leadership within one of the early Islamic empire’s most influential dynasties.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who was Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and what position did he hold within the Umayyad dynasty?

Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan was the seventh Umayyad caliph, ruling from 715 until his death in September 717. He was a pivotal figure in the Umayyad dynasty, succeeding his brother al-Walid I.

What was Sulayman’s lineage and early life influences?

Born around 675 in Medina, Sulayman was the son of Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and Wallada bint al-Abbas, a descendant of the notable Banu Abs tribe leader, Zuhayr ibn Jadhima. Raised partly in the desert by his Banu Abs relatives, his early life was influenced by tribal dynamics and the political turbulence of the Umayyad period.

What significant event led to Sulayman’s family fleeing Medina, and where did they seek refuge?

After the deaths of Mu’awiya I’s successors, Yazid I and Mu’awiya II, in 683 and 684, Umayyad authority collapsed, and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr was widely recognized as caliph. As a result, Sulayman’s family fled Medina and sought refuge in Syria, supported by loyal Arab tribes.

What major administrative role did Sulayman hold before becoming caliph, and what notable city did he found during this tenure?

Before becoming caliph, Sulayman was appointed governor of Jund Filastin (the military district of Palestine). During his governorship, he founded the city of Ramla, establishing it as the administrative and economic center of Palestine, effectively replacing Lydda.

How did Sulayman’s relationship with al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf influence his political actions?

Sulayman resented al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf’s significant influence over his brother, Caliph al-Walid I. This antagonism led Sulayman to support Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, an opponent of al-Hajjaj, fostering a deep-seated antagonism that shaped his policies and governance after becoming caliph.

What were Sulayman’s actions upon ascending to the caliphate in 715, particularly regarding provincial governors?

Upon becoming caliph, Sulayman swiftly consolidated his authority by dismissing most of al-Walid I’s and al-Hajjaj’s provincial governors and generals. He appointed loyalists, including Yazid ibn al-Muhallab as governor of Iraq, to strengthen his control and reduce al-Hajjaj’s influence.

What were the military campaigns during Sulayman’s reign?

Sulayman continued the Umayyad militarist policies but saw limited territorial expansion. His reign was marked by the historic siege of Constantinople (717–718), where he mobilized a massive campaign against the Byzantine capital. Despite deploying his half-brother Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik and a formidable navy, the siege ended in failure, resulting in significant Umayyad losses and a strategic retreat.

What circumstances led to Sulayman’s death, and who succeeded him as caliph?

Sulayman died in September 717 in Dabiq during the siege of Constantinople, likely due to illness. His eldest son, Ayyub, had predeceased him earlier that year. Facing the loss of his designated heir, Sulayman nominated his cousin Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz as his successor, defying the usual Umayyad preference for direct descendants.

What was Sulayman’s legacy in terms of urban development and administrative reforms?

Sulayman’s most enduring legacy was the foundation of Ramla, which became the administrative and economic heart of Palestine. He implemented significant administrative reforms by replacing provincial governors with loyalists, aimed at centralizing Umayyad authority and reducing the influence of rivals like al-Hajjaj.

How is Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik viewed in historical and literary sources, and how does his legacy compare to his successor?

Historical and literary sources present a mixed view of Sulayman. Contemporary poets like al-Farazdaq and Jarir portrayed him messianically as the Mahdi, celebrating his leadership during the centennial of the Hijra and his military efforts against Byzantium. However, Islamic tradition also depicts him as leading a licentious life. His legacy is often overshadowed by his successor, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, who is regarded as one of the most capable Umayyad caliphs.