Why did the Greeks defeat Persia, but the Romans failed?

Early Life and Background

Born around 380 BC, Darius III was a distant member of the Achaemenid royal family, making his rise to the throne a story of both chance and ambition. His original name, Artashata, meaning “Happy in Arta,” reflects traditional Persian values that tied well-being to divine truth and righteousness.

According to Roman historian Justin, Darius may also have been known as “Codomannus” before taking the throne, a name possibly originating from the Aramaic word “qdmwn,” meaning “Easterner.” This was not an uncommon practice among the Persian nobility, who sometimes held both a Persian and a Babylonian or Aramaic name. However, Darius abandoned this name as he gained prominence, adopting Artashata and later, upon taking the throne, the regnal name “Darius.”

Darius’s lineage, though distant from the ruling line, still connected him to the Achaemenid family. His father, Arsames, descended from Ostanes, a brother of King Artaxerxes II, and his mother, Sisygambis, also came from noble origins, likely within the Achaemenid lineage. Darius had two known siblings: his brother Oxyathres and his sister Stateira I. These connections would eventually play a role in his acceptance among the aristocracy.

Rise to Prominence

Darius’s journey to the throne began during the Cadusian expedition of Artaxerxes III in the 350s BC, during which he demonstrated considerable bravery. Recognizing his valor, Artaxerxes III rewarded him with the satrapy (or governorship) of Armenia. This role marked a turning point in Darius’s life, elevating him from relative obscurity to the higher echelons of Persian power.

Greek sources sometimes depict him as a lowly “courier” or “slave” of the king, but these terms are misinterpretations of the Persian title “bandaka,” which conveyed a sense of loyalty and high status rather than servitude. By some accounts, Darius managed the royal postal service, an important administrative role within the empire that implied both trust and prestige.

Around this time, he strengthened his political standing through marriage. Likely sometime in the 340s BC, Darius married his sister Stateira I, a union that served to secure his position within the royal family. His rising status and connection to the ruling family helped shield him from suspicion and potential threats from King Artaxerxes III, known to eliminate rivals to the throne.

Ascension to the Throne

The chain of events that led Darius to the throne began with the actions of the court eunuch Bagoas, who wielded significant influence in the royal court. Around 338 BC, Bagoas orchestrated the poisoning of Artaxerxes III, clearing the path to power for Arses, Artaxerxes’s son. However, Arses, seeking to remove Bagoas’s influence, attempted to have him killed. Bagoas retaliated by poisoning Arses and then installing Darius, whom he viewed as a manageable ruler, on the throne in 336 BC.

After the poisoning of Artaxerxes III and his successor Arses by vizier Bagoas, Darius ascended the throne and ultimately eliminated Bagoas.

Darius’s reputation for bravery and his noble background earned him acceptance among the Persian aristocracy, though he soon demonstrated that he would not be a puppet ruler. Shortly after assuming power, he uncovered a plot by Bagoas to poison him as well. Darius responded by forcing Bagoas to drink the poison he had prepared, effectively eliminating one of the most influential figures in the court. This decisive action established Darius as an independent ruler, yet it also exposed the instability within the Achaemenid Empire’s power structures.

Reign of Darius III

Darius III’s reign coincided with one of the most challenging periods in Persian history. Although he initially faced minor rebellions in Babylon and Egypt, his most formidable threat soon emerged from the west.

Philip II of Macedon, having unified much of Greece under the League of Corinth, planned an invasion of Persia as revenge for the Persian desecration of Greek temples during the Persian Wars. However, Philip’s assassination shifted the burden of leadership to his son, Alexander, who promptly took up his father’s cause and prepared to expand the Macedonian empire into Asia.

In 334 BC, Alexander launched his campaign against Persia, beginning with a series of victories in Asia Minor, including the Battle of the Granicus River. Although Darius was aware of Alexander’s advance, he underestimated the Macedonian threat, entrusting his satraps in Asia Minor to confront the invasion. By the time Darius realized the scale of the challenge posed by Alexander, the Macedonian forces had already made significant inroads.

Diodorus Siculus’s Portrayal of Philip II of Macedon

Confrontation with Alexander the Great

The first major clash between Darius and Alexander took place at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. With his large but less organized forces, Darius held a numerical advantage but was unable to counter Alexander’s tactical ingenuity.

When Alexander managed to outflank Darius’s forces, the Persian king fled, abandoning not only his army but also his family, who were captured by Alexander. This retreat severely damaged Darius’s reputation and allowed Alexander to strengthen his position as both a military and moral victor.

After Issus, Darius attempted to negotiate a settlement, offering Alexander substantial territories in exchange for his family’s release and peace.

However, Alexander refused these offers, pressing further into Persian territory and forcing Darius into yet another confrontation. The decisive encounter between the two came at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, where Darius assembled one of the largest forces in Achaemenid history. Despite his advantage in numbers and a well-prepared battleground, Darius once again faltered in the face of Alexander’s tactical brilliance, resulting in another retreat that sealed his defeat and the end of the Achaemenid power.

The Fall and Death of Darius III

Following the defeat at Gaugamela, Alexander captured key Persian cities, including Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire. With the heart of his empire lost, Darius retreated further east, seeking to regroup and possibly rally his remaining forces in Bactria and Ecbatana. However, his hopes of restoring his empire were undermined by the erosion of loyalty among his followers.

As Alexander continued his pursuit, Darius’s satraps, led by Bessus, conspired against him. In 330 BC, Bessus and other high-ranking officials captured Darius, intending to use him as leverage against Alexander.

When Alexander’s forces drew near, Bessus and his co-conspirators abandoned Darius, fatally wounding him before fleeing. Alexander found Darius either already dead or in his final moments in an ox-cart, where he was left alone by those who had once served him.

Alexander, despite being his enemy, treated Darius with respect after his death. He took Darius’s signet ring as a symbol of his succession and ordered that the fallen king receive a royal burial fitting of his status. This gesture was both politically and symbolically significant, as it allowed Alexander to present himself not just as a conqueror but as the legitimate heir to the Achaemenid Empire.

Legacy and Historical Interpretation

Darius III’s legacy is often overshadowed by his defeats and the eventual dissolution of the Achaemenid Empire under his watch. Greek historians, who largely document his reign, portray him as a tragic figure, overpowered by the military genius of Alexander.

However, Darius’s reign and his responses to the Macedonian threat reflect both the internal challenges facing the Achaemenid administration and the external pressures that ultimately brought the empire to its knees.

Darius is sometimes criticized for fleeing at Issus and Gaugamela, actions that seemed to contrast sharply with Alexander’s relentless pursuit and bravery. These moments of retreat contributed to a perception of Darius as a weak and ineffective ruler, yet they may also reflect his strategic realism, acknowledging when further engagement would be fruitless against Alexander’s superior tactics.

In Persian and Iranian cultural memory, Darius III’s legacy is complex. Later Persian traditions sometimes view him as Dara II, the last king of the mythological Kayanian dynasty, which is believed to reflect memories of the historical Achaemenid kings. This portrayal, while differing from Greek accounts, suggests that Darius’s memory endured in a modified form within Iranian folklore.

The Impact of Darius III’s Reign on Persia and Beyond

The fall of Darius III and the Achaemenid Empire brought a major cultural and political shift, marking the beginning of the Hellenistic era. Under Alexander, Greek culture and governance were introduced into Persian territories, leading to a fusion of Greek and Persian customs and traditions. The resultant Hellenistic influence in Persia shaped the region’s art, architecture, and administration, with subsequent empires adopting a blend of Greek and Persian elements.

Moreover, Darius’s reign underscores the challenges faced by large empires in maintaining cohesion across vast and diverse territories. The power struggle between Darius and Bagoas, as well as the loyalty erosion that led to Bessus’s betrayal, highlights the inherent difficulties within Achaemenid governance. These internal fractures contributed to the empire’s vulnerability when facing an external threat like Alexander’s invasion.

The end of Darius’s reign also marked a significant turning point for the Persian people, who found themselves under foreign rule for the first time since the founding of the Achaemenid dynasty. Alexander’s empire would later fracture after his death, leading to the rise of the Seleucid Empire in Persia and the eventual emergence of the Parthians, who sought to revive Persian sovereignty and tradition.

Conclusion

Darius III’s life, reign, and ultimate downfall are emblematic of the fragility of empires and the shifting tides of history. His ascent to the throne from relative obscurity, his efforts to defend Persia against a relentless and strategic adversary, and his tragic end in the mountains of Bactria form a compelling narrative of ambition, struggle, and loss. While his legacy is often measured against the meteoric rise of Alexander, Darius’s reign represents the final chapter of a once-mighty empire that left an enduring impact on the ancient world.

In historical memory, Darius III stands as both a cautionary figure and a reminder of the resilience of Persian identity. His rule, although marked by defeat, contributed to the shaping of subsequent Persian kingdoms, which sought to restore and honor their heritage in the wake of foreign domination. Through this lens, Darius III’s story transcends his personal failures and reflects the broader saga of Persian civilization’s adaptation and survival through turbulent times.

Frequently Asked Questions

What was Darius III’s original name, and what does it mean?

Darius III’s original name was Artashata, which is derived from the Old Persian word meaning “Happy in Arta.”

Why is Darius III sometimes referred to as “Codomannus”?

The Roman historian Justin referred to Darius as “Codomannus,” possibly a nickname or a third name. Scholar Ernst Badian suggests it may derive from the Aramaic term “qdmwn,” meaning “Easterner.”

What might have led Darius III to drop the name Codomannus?

Darius may have dropped the name Codomannus in favor of Artashata as he rose in prominence, later adopting the regnal name “Darius” when he became king in 336 BC.

How is Darius III’s life mostly documented, and what makes these accounts distinct?

Darius III’s life is primarily documented by Greek sources, which often contrast his character unfavorably with Alexander the Great and lack Persian perspectives from his reign.

Who were Darius III’s parents and siblings?

Darius III’s father was Arsames, a descendant of Darius II, and his mother was Sisygambis, who was likely of Achaemenid descent. His siblings were Oxyathres and Stateira I.

What significant event in Darius’s early life led to his rise in status?

During the Cadusian expedition under Artaxerxes III, Darius (then Artashata) showed bravery, which earned him the satrapy of Armenia from the king and marked a turning point in his career.

What title did Artashata hold before becoming king, and what did it signify?

Artashata held the title bandaka, a Persian term that translated as “loyal servant” or “vassal,” which conveyed loyalty rather than subservience. He likely managed the royal postal service, a high-ranking position.

How did Darius III come to the throne?

The powerful court eunuch Bagoas poisoned Artaxerxes III and placed Arses on the throne. When Arses resisted, Bagoas poisoned him as well and then installed Artashata, who took the regnal name Darius III, as king in 336 BC.

What happened when Bagoas tried to poison Darius III?

When Darius III discovered Bagoas’s plot to poison him, he forced the eunuch to drink the poisoned cup, resulting in Bagoas’s death.

How did Darius III initially respond to Alexander the Great’s invasion?

Darius underestimated Alexander’s invasion and left his satraps to handle it, staying in Persepolis. However, he later took command himself at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, where he was outflanked by Alexander and forced to flee.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC?

Despite having a strong force, Darius was again defeated by Alexander’s strategy at Gaugamela. Darius’s retreat led to further criticism and allowed Alexander to capture key Persian capitals.

What eventually led to Darius III’s downfall?

Dissatisfaction among his followers and a conspiracy led by his satrap Bessus resulted in Darius’s arrest. When Alexander’s forces approached, Bessus wounded Darius, who was later found dead or dying by Alexander.

What happened to Bessus after he killed Darius III?

After Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, betrayed and killed Darius III, he attempted to claim the Persian throne for himself under the name Artaxerxes V. Bessus likely hoped to rally the eastern provinces of the former Achaemenid Empire against Alexander the Great, who had by then taken control of much of Persia.

However, Bessus’s plan quickly failed. Many Persian nobles and military leaders saw his actions as dishonorable and were unwilling to support him as a legitimate ruler.

Bessus retreated into the eastern provinces of Bactria and Sogdiana, where he attempted to organize resistance against Alexander. Alexander pursued Bessus, aiming to bring the traitor to justice for killing Darius, whom Alexander wanted to capture alive as a symbol of his legitimate succession to the Persian throne.

Bessus tried to defend the eastern Achaemenid territories from Alexander the Great, but his rule quickly collapsed.

In 329 BC, as Alexander approached, Bessus’s own officers turned against him, likely seeking to secure their own safety with Alexander’s advancing army. Bessus was captured by his former allies and handed over to Alexander as a prisoner. Alexander then had him tried for treason and the murder of Darius.

Bessus was executed in a particularly brutal fashion, likely as a warning to others who might consider similar betrayal. According to some accounts, he was mutilated by having his nose and ears cut off, a traditional Persian punishment for treason, and was then either crucified or impaled. This punishment symbolized the dishonor of his actions, marking an end to Bessus’s short and ignoble claim to the Persian throne.

How did Alexander the Great treat Darius III after his death?

Alexander took Darius’s signet ring, arranged for a royal burial, and continued as Darius’s heir in spirit, cementing his control over Persia.

How is Darius III’s legacy remembered?

Darius III’s legacy was overshadowed by Alexander’s success, yet he remains remembered as the last king of Persia, whose challenges and downfall marked the end of the Achaemenid Empire and the beginning of the Hellenistic period.