Throughout history, humans have sought to understand and predict natural disasters, especially earthquakes. Earthquakes, which have devastating impacts, have left societies grappling with both physical destruction and a search for meaning. From ancient Rome to the modern-day town of L’Aquila in Italy, the perception and interpretation of earthquakes have evolved in remarkable ways.

Below, World History Edu explores how earthquakes were understood from the time of the ancient Romans to modern times, focusing on the concept of “prodigies” and how human attempts to explain these phenomena reflect changing attitudes toward science, religion, and the natural world.

Earthquakes in Ancient Rome

In ancient Rome, natural disasters were often seen as divine signs or “prodigies”—extraordinary events that heralded significant change or displeasure from the gods. The Romans, like many ancient cultures, lived in a world that was deeply interconnected with their religious beliefs. Earthquakes were no exception.

Julius Caesar’s era was one where the interpretation of natural phenomena, including earthquakes, was bound to religious and political contexts. The Roman Senate, for instance, would often commission priests, known as haruspices, to interpret signs like lightning strikes, bird flights, or even tremors in the earth. These prodigies were often considered warnings, and the response to them could be public rituals, sacrifices, or even changes in policy.

In ancient Rome, earthquakes were seen as prodigies—signs from the gods that required interpretation by priests and politicians.

The historian Livy documented several cases where earthquakes were interpreted as signs. For example, in 217 BCE, during the Second Punic War, Livy recorded an earthquake occurring during a battle between Rome and Hannibal’s forces. However, neither side noticed it due to the intensity of the conflict. Afterward, the earthquake was interpreted as an omen, signaling both the seriousness of the war and Rome’s eventual victory.

READ MORE: 14 Major Ancient Roman Gods and Goddesses

The Shift to Naturalistic Explanations

As the Roman Empire transitioned into the later stages of antiquity, there was a gradual shift in the way earthquakes were perceived. While religious explanations remained prevalent, naturalistic theories began to emerge, particularly among philosophers and scholars.

One notable thinker was Seneca, a Stoic philosopher who lived during the 1st century CE. Seneca’s writings on earthquakes reflected a move toward rational explanations of natural events. In his work Naturales Quaestiones, Seneca discussed the nature of earthquakes, rejecting the idea that they were divine punishments. Instead, he posited that earthquakes were caused by natural processes, such as the movement of air within the Earth. This was an early attempt to understand earthquakes through observation and reason rather than relying solely on religious or superstitious explanations.

While Seneca’s ideas did not immediately replace the prevailing belief in prodigies, they marked a significant intellectual shift. The growing influence of Greek philosophy, which emphasized rationality and empirical observation, contributed to a broader questioning of supernatural explanations for natural events.

READ MORE: Most Famous Stoic Philosophers of the Ancient World

Medieval Interpretations of Earthquakes

The fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity in Europe brought new layers of interpretation to natural disasters. In medieval Europe, earthquakes were again seen as divine punishments, but this time within a Christian framework. Theologians often interpreted earthquakes as manifestations of God’s wrath, punishment for human sin, or warnings of the apocalypse.

For instance, in the writings of Saint Augustine, earthquakes were often linked to the moral state of humanity. Augustine believed that the world was in a state of decay due to original sin, and natural disasters were a reminder of this fallen state. The perception of earthquakes as divine punishments persisted throughout much of the Middle Ages, reinforced by the deeply religious worldview of the time.

However, even during the Middle Ages, there were glimmers of more naturalistic explanations. The medieval polymath Albertus Magnus, for example, proposed that earthquakes were caused by the movement of air and water beneath the Earth’s surface. This echoed earlier naturalistic explanations from antiquity and set the stage for later scientific inquiry.

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Renaissance and Enlightenment: Toward a Scientific Understanding

The Renaissance, with its revival of classical learning and emphasis on observation and reason, brought about significant changes in the perception of earthquakes. As Europe moved into the Enlightenment, the natural world was increasingly viewed through the lens of science rather than theology.

During this period, scholars began to develop more systematic theories about the causes of earthquakes. The scientific method, which emphasized observation, experimentation, and the formulation of hypotheses, became the dominant approach to understanding natural phenomena.

Over time, with the rise of philosophy and science, naturalistic explanations of earthquakes began to emerge, challenging the notion of the event as divine punishments.

One pivotal moment in the history of earthquake studies came in 1755 with the Lisbon earthquake. This devastating earthquake, which destroyed much of Lisbon and killed tens of thousands of people, prompted widespread reflection on the causes and meaning of such disasters. Philosophers like Voltaire questioned the notion of divine punishment, while others, like Immanuel Kant, sought to explain the earthquake in purely naturalistic terms.

Kant proposed that earthquakes were caused by subterranean forces, specifically the movement of gas and water beneath the Earth’s surface. This was an important step toward modern seismology, as it focused on the physical processes underlying earthquakes rather than interpreting them as signs or prodigies.

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The Birth of Modern Seismology

By the 19th century, the scientific study of earthquakes had evolved into the field of seismology. Advances in geology and physics allowed scientists to better understand the mechanisms behind earthquakes. The development of the seismograph, a device used to measure seismic waves, provided researchers with the tools to study earthquakes in a more systematic and quantitative way.

One of the pioneers of modern seismology was the Italian scientist Luigi Palmieri, who developed an early version of the seismograph in the mid-19th century. Palmieri’s work laid the foundation for later advances in earthquake detection and measurement.

The Renaissance and Enlightenment furthered this shift, as scholars developed more sophisticated theories about the natural causes of earthquakes.

As scientific understanding of earthquakes grew, the idea of earthquakes as prodigies or divine signs faded into the background. However, in many parts of the world, especially in rural and less scientifically developed areas, older beliefs about earthquakes persisted. In these places, earthquakes continued to be seen as omens or punishments, reflecting a lingering tension between scientific and supernatural explanations.

Did you know…?

The Advanced Laboratory of Historical Seismology has compiled a comprehensive database of earthquake activity in Italy, ranging from 461 BCE to 1997 CE. This research helps document the history of seismic events and their impact on the region, offering insights into past and present seismic risks.

L’Aquila Earthquake of 2009

The L’Aquila earthquake of 2009 offers a modern example of how earthquake perception has evolved, but also how old tensions between science and superstition remain.

On April 6, 2009, a 6.3-magnitude earthquake struck the town of L’Aquila in central Italy, killing over 300 people and leaving tens of thousands homeless. The earthquake was particularly devastating because it struck at night, when many people were asleep and unprepared.

In the aftermath of the disaster, public outrage erupted not only over the destruction but also over the failure to predict the earthquake. In the weeks leading up to the earthquake, there had been several smaller tremors, known as foreshocks, which had raised concerns among residents. However, the official response from Italy’s National Commission for the Forecast and Prevention of Major Risks was to downplay the risk of a major earthquake.

This decision led to a controversial trial in which several scientists and public officials were charged with manslaughter for allegedly providing false reassurances to the public. The trial sparked a heated debate about the role of scientists in predicting natural disasters and the limits of scientific knowledge. Although the scientists were initially convicted, their sentences were later overturned on appeal, with the court recognizing the inherent unpredictability of earthquakes.

The L’Aquila earthquake highlights the ongoing tension between public expectations and scientific limitations. While modern seismology has made great strides in understanding the causes of earthquakes and measuring seismic activity, the ability to predict precisely when and where an earthquake will occur remains elusive. This unpredictability often leads to frustration and, in some cases, a return to older ways of thinking about earthquakes as random, inexplicable events.

Questions and Answers

What is the primary appeal of archaeology, as mentioned in the text?

The primary appeal of archaeology lies in the thrill of discovering well-preserved artifacts.

How does nature play a role in the preservation of relics and buildings?

Some archaeologists study how natural elements, like volcanic ash and soot, help preserve artifacts and buildings. These materials can protect relics from decay and even allow for the precise dating of events like volcanic eruptions.

How do volcanic eruptions contribute to the preservation of ancient artifacts?

Although volcanic eruptions can be devastating, the ash and soot they produce help preserve ancient artifacts by encasing them. These layers can also help identify the timing of eruptions, even when the ash is found far from the volcano itself.

Why are earthquakes particularly challenging compared to other natural disasters like floods?

Earthquakes are unpredictable and unavoidable. While humans can somewhat prepare for floods, there is no reliable way to predict when or where an earthquake will strike, making them more challenging to manage.

Why is it puzzling that people continue to live in high-risk seismic areas like California, Italy, and Japan?

It is puzzling because, despite the known risk of earthquakes in these areas, people continue to build and live there. While some regions have advanced construction techniques to mitigate earthquake damage, others do not, leaving many buildings vulnerable.

What is the tectonic activity that contributes to earthquakes in Italy?

Italy experiences earthquakes due to the movement of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates. The African plate pushes against the Eurasian plate, and when the pressure becomes too great, the energy is released as an earthquake.

Who was Julius Obsequens, and why is his work significant?

Julius Obsequens was a Roman writer and historian who documented seismic events and other unusual phenomena in ancient Italy. His work, particularly in the Book of Prodigies, provides valuable historical records of how earthquakes were interpreted and how they affected Italy.

How were earthquakes viewed in ancient Roman times?

In ancient Roman times, earthquakes were often seen as consequences of poor construction or supernatural forces. They were interpreted as signs of divine displeasure, and rituals or sacrifices were performed to atone for human sins and restore divine favor.

How have ancient structures like Pompeii and Herculaneum survived over time?

Ancient structures in Pompeii and Herculaneum have survived centuries of wear and seismic shocks because of their durable construction techniques. Their thick walls and solid structures were more resilient compared to those built in later periods, like the Middle Ages.

What survived the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Pompeii?

How did the 2012 earthquake in Emilia Romagna affect medieval structures?

The 2012 earthquake in Emilia Romagna caused extensive damage to medieval structures, such as the Estense Castle and other significant monuments. While some efforts are being made to restore these sites, the process is slow and uncertain.

Why are earthquakes particularly concerning for Italy’s historical heritage?

Earthquakes are especially concerning for Italy because the country holds a fragile cultural and historical legacy. Each tremor threatens to damage or destroy irreplaceable historical buildings and monuments, making the preservation of Italy’s heritage an ongoing challenge.

For example, the 2009 earthquake in L’Aquila caused severe damage to both human lives and cultural heritage. Many historically significant buildings were destroyed or damaged beyond restoration, and the recovery of these sites remains uncertain.