History of the Wehrmacht: When was it formed and what role did it play in Nazi Germany’s military strategy?
The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945, consisting of the Heer (army), Kriegsmarine (navy), and Luftwaffe (air force).
Emblem of used by the Wehrmacht.
Origins and Formation
The term “Wehrmacht” derives from the German words “wehren,” meaning “to defend,” and “Macht,” meaning “power” or “force.” Historically, it was used to describe any armed forces, including references to the “German Wehrmacht” in the Frankfurt Constitution of 1849.
The Weimar Constitution of 1919 also used the term in reference to the armed forces of the Reich. However, “Wehrmacht” became synonymous with Nazi Germany’s military forces after its official adoption on May 21, 1935, replacing the previous term “Reichswehr.”
Following Germany’s defeat in World War I, the Treaty of Versailles imposed strict limitations on its military forces, reducing the standing army to 100,000 men and less than 20,000 naval personnel. The use of tanks, submarines, and an air force was prohibited.
Despite these restrictions, the German military clandestinely began rebuilding under the leadership of General Hans von Seeckt. His focus was on creating a highly trained, elite force that would form the nucleus of a future expanded army.
How did the Germans react to the terms of the Versailles Treaty?
By 1922, Germany had begun covertly circumventing these restrictions through collaboration with the Soviet Union. Under the Treaty of Rapallo, Germany provided technological and industrial support to the Soviet Union in exchange for secret training facilities for its military, particularly for tank warfare and aviation.
By the time Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, the Reichswehr was already engaged in secret expansion efforts, a process that was accelerated when Hitler openly defied the Versailles Treaty by introducing conscription and launching the Wehrmacht in 1935.
Reichswehr soldiers in August of 1934.
Structure and Branches of the Wehrmacht
Heer (Army)
The Heer, or German Army, was the largest branch of the Wehrmacht. It was structured into various divisions, including Panzer (armored) divisions, infantry units, and specialized mountain and paratrooper divisions. The army was known for pioneering Blitzkrieg (“lightning war”) tactics, which relied on rapid mechanized movements, air support, and coordinated attacks. Early successes in Poland (1939), France (1940), and the Soviet Union (1941) showcased these tactics.
Kriegsmarine (Navy)
The Kriegsmarine was the smallest of the Wehrmacht’s branches. Initially limited by the Treaty of Versailles, the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935 allowed Germany to expand its fleet. The navy relied heavily on U-boats (submarines) in the Battle of the Atlantic, attempting to cripple Allied supply lines. However, the surface fleet, including the famous battleship Bismarck, played a limited role due to Allied naval superiority.
Luftwaffe (Air Force)
The Luftwaffe, officially formed in 1935 under Hermann Göring, became one of the most formidable air forces of the early war years. It played a crucial role in supporting ground operations during Blitzkrieg campaigns and participated in strategic bombing operations, including the Battle of Britain (1940). However, by 1943, Allied bombing campaigns had significantly weakened the Luftwaffe, and it was unable to recover in time to influence the later stages of the war.
Why did the Soviet Union and Poland have the greatest number of civilian losses during WWII?
Operational History
Blitzkrieg and Early Successes (1939-1941)
The Wehrmacht’s early military campaigns were marked by rapid advances and overwhelming victories:
- Invasion of Poland (1939): Germany’s attack on Poland on September 1, 1939, prompted Britain and France to declare war, marking the start of World War II.
- Battle of France (1940): German forces bypassed the heavily fortified Maginot Line by advancing through Belgium and the Ardennes, leading to France’s swift capitulation.
- Operation Barbarossa (1941): The invasion of the Soviet Union marked the Wehrmacht’s largest military campaign, but logistical failures and the Soviet winter halted its advance.
Stalemate and Decline (1942-1945)
By late 1942, the Wehrmacht’s initial momentum had waned:
- Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943): This turning point saw an entire German army encircled and forced to surrender, marking the beginning of the Wehrmacht’s decline.
- D-Day (1944): The Allied invasion of Normandy opened a Western Front, forcing Germany into a defensive war on multiple fronts.
- Battle of Berlin (1945): The final battle saw the Red Army overrun the German capital, leading to Hitler’s suicide and Germany’s surrender on May 8, 1945.
Raising a Flag over the Reichstag, during the Battle of Berlin
The Wehrmacht’s ultimate defeat in 1945 was a result of both Allied military superiority and the unsustainable ambitions of Hitler’s expansionist policies.
War Crimes and Collaboration with the SS
Contrary to post-war narratives of a “clean Wehrmacht,” extensive evidence reveals that German armed forces actively participated in war crimes, particularly in Eastern Europe. These included:
- Mass executions of civilians and POWs
- Cooperation with the Einsatzgruppen in the Holocaust
- Reprisals against resistance movements in occupied territories
The Commissar Order directed Wehrmacht units to execute Soviet political commissars, while the Hunger Plan aimed to starve millions of Soviet citizens to death.
Despite widespread collaboration with the Nazi regime, some members of the Wehrmacht opposed Hitler. The most famous act of resistance was the 20 July Plot (1944), where Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg attempted to assassinate Hitler. The plot failed, leading to mass executions of suspected conspirators.
Legacy and Post-War Consequences
After the war, the Wehrmacht was officially dissolved on August 20, 1946. Some of its highest-ranking officers were tried at Nuremberg, though many escaped prosecution. The post-war Bundeswehr, formed in West Germany in 1955, recruited many former Wehrmacht officers, leading to controversies over the military’s Nazi-era legacy.
In post-war Germany, the myth of the “clean Wehrmacht” persisted, portraying the military as distinct from Nazi crimes. This was gradually dismantled by historians such as Omer Bartov and Ian Kershaw, who revealed the Wehrmacht’s deep entanglement in the Holocaust and war atrocities.
The historical reassessment of the Wehrmacht has revealed its central role in Nazi war crimes, challenging long-standing myths and shaping modern understanding of its legacy.
Timeline of the Wehrmacht (1935–1945)
- 21 May 1935 – The Reichswehr is officially renamed the Wehrmacht, marking Germany’s open rearmament in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles.
- 1936–1938 – Germany reoccupies the Rhineland, annexes Austria (Anschluss), and takes over Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland, testing its military strength.
- 1 September 1939 – Germany invades Poland, using Blitzkrieg tactics, triggering World War II.
- 1940 – Wehrmacht rapidly conquers Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France.
- 22 June 1941 – Launch of Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, leading to early victories but eventual overextension.
- December 1941 – Wehrmacht suffers its first major defeat at the Battle of Moscow.
- 1942–1943 – Turning points: defeats in Stalingrad and North Africa signal the shift of war in favor of the Allies.
- 1944 – Allied landings in Normandy and Soviet advances force German retreat on multiple fronts.
- 1945 – Germany collapses; Berlin falls in April, and the Wehrmacht surrenders unconditionally on 8 May.
Frequently Asked Questions
How did the Wehrmacht differ from the Reichswehr?
The Wehrmacht replaced the Reichswehr in 1935 as part of Germany’s rearmament, significantly expanding its size and capabilities beyond what the Treaty of Versailles allowed.
What was the Wehrmacht’s involvement in war crimes?
The Wehrmacht collaborated with the SS in numerous war crimes, particularly in occupied territories, including mass executions, reprisals, and the Holocaust.
How did the Wehrmacht contribute to early German victories?
Superior training, innovative combined-arms tactics, and the element of surprise allowed the Wehrmacht to conquer Poland, France, and parts of the Soviet Union quickly.
READ ALSO: How and why did the Soviet Union get involved in WWII?
What was the Wehrmacht’s role in Operation Barbarossa?
It led the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 but suffered logistical failures and harsh winter conditions, leading to its first major defeat in Moscow.
Why did the Wehrmacht start losing the war?
Overextension, supply shortages, superior Allied industrial output, and strategic errors led to major defeats from 1942 onward.
What was the relationship between the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS?
Initially tense, their cooperation grew during the war, with the Waffen-SS gaining more combat roles and often operating alongside Wehrmacht units.
How many soldiers served in the Wehrmacht?
Approximately 18 million men served in the Wehrmacht between 1935 and 1945.
The Wehrmacht, despite its initial successes, ultimately failed due to strategic overreach, logistical weaknesses, and Allied superiority.
What happened to the Wehrmacht after WWII?
It was officially dissolved in 1946 by the Allied Control Council, and many former officers later served in West Germany’s Bundeswehr and East Germany’s Nationale Volksarmee.
How did the Wehrmacht recruit soldiers?
Recruitment was through voluntary enlistment and conscription, with an increasing reliance on forced foreign recruits as the war progressed.
What was the myth of the ‘clean Wehrmacht’?
A post-war narrative that sought to distance the Wehrmacht from Nazi war crimes, despite overwhelming evidence of its involvement.
How did the Luftwaffe influence WWII?
Initially dominant in Blitzkrieg operations, it later struggled against superior Allied air forces, particularly in the Battle of Britain and the bombing of Germany.
Why was the Battle of Stalingrad a turning point?
The Wehrmacht suffered heavy losses, with an entire army encircled and captured, marking the beginning of Germany’s retreat on the Eastern Front.
How did the Wehrmacht handle resistance movements?
It conducted brutal reprisals, often massacring civilians in occupied territories to suppress resistance activities.
