On September 27, 1821, the Mexican War of Independence reached its climactic conclusion as Agustín de Iturbide led the Army of the Three Guarantees into Mexico City. This marked exactly eleven years and eleven days since the onset of the revolt with the Grito de Dolores. The entry of Iturbide’s forces symbolized the final defeat of Spanish colonial rule and the beginning of a new era for Mexico.

Establishment of the Provisional Governing Board

The very next day, on September 28, 1821, Iturbide established the Provisional Governing Board, composed of 38 influential figures in Mexican society. The board was presided over by Antonio Pérez Martínez y Robles, with Juan José Espinosa de los Monteros serving as secretary. This group was tasked with navigating the immediate political landscape of the newly independent nation and setting up a framework for governance.

Formation of the Regency of the Empire

Shortly after its formation, the Provisional Governing Board moved to elect the five members of the Regency of the Empire, effectively creating an interim government to manage the transition from colonial rule to independent governance. This Regency was to act as the executive arm of the government, guiding the nation through its formative stages.

Distribution and Publication of the Declaration of Independence

On October 13, 1821, Ramón Gutiérrez del Mazo, the first political chief of Mexico City post-independence, took a significant step by distributing the Declaration of Independence. This document was circulated widely, not just in Mexico City but throughout the nation, ensuring that all segments of society, including courts, governors, and military authorities, were informed of Mexico’s new status as an independent entity. This wide distribution was crucial for garnering support and consolidating the control of the new government.

 

Drafting and Signing of the Declaration of Independence

The drafting of the Declaration of Independence was a pivotal moment in Mexican history. On the afternoon of September 28, the Provisional Governing Board convened at the National Palace to articulate the aspirations and the foundational principles of the independent Mexican nation. The final documents were penned by Juan José Espinosa de los Monteros, reflecting the collective input of the Board.

The Declaration was signed by 33 of the 38 board members, with notable exclusions including Juan O’Donojú, the last Superior Political Chief of New Spain, and four other members. Although O’Donojú did not sign the document at the time, his name was included in the final printed copies to symbolize the continuity from the old regime to the new governance structure.

 

Controversy Over the Form of Government

Not all key figures in the independence movement were present or agreed with the direction of the new government. Prominent insurgents like Guadalupe Victoria, Vicente Guerrero, and Nicolás Bravo, who might have favored a republican form of government, did not sign the Declaration, possibly due to their disapproval of the establishment of an empire rather than a republic. This absence highlights the political divisions and differing visions for the future of Mexico.

The Legacy of the Declaration

The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire not only formalized Mexico’s separation from Spain but also laid the groundwork for the nation’s future. It declared the intentions of the Mexican people to establish a governance model that reflected their ideals and aspirations. The document itself, measuring 52.9 cm wide and 71.8 cm high, has become a symbol of Mexican sovereignty and the struggle for independence.

Conclusion

The events of late September and early October 1821 were crucial in shaping the newly independent Mexican Empire. The actions taken by the Provisional Governing Board, the drafting and signing of the Declaration of Independence, and the subsequent efforts to promulgate the document set the foundation for the future political, social, and economic development of Mexico.

Despite the initial establishment of an empire, these events eventually led to the emergence of a republic, following further internal conflicts and political debates. The independence movement thus remains a significant chapter in Mexican history, symbolizing the triumph of national aspirations over colonial domination.

Did you know…?

Originally, three copies were made; however, one was lost to a fire in 1909. The surviving documents are preserved at the Museo Histórico de Acapulco Fuerte de San Diego and the General Archive of the Nation in Mexico City. Measuring 52.9 cm wide and 71.8 cm high, the Declaration is a significant artifact of Mexican history.

Frequently Asked Questions about Mexico’s struggle for independence

Here are some questions and answers based on the detailed narrative of Mexico’s journey towards independence from the Spanish Empire:

What were the social classes present in New Spain during Spanish colonial rule?

The social classes in New Spain included the Spanish-born peninsulares, American-born creoles, mestizos (mixed European and Indigenous ancestry), and the Indigenous and African populations.

How did the Enlightenment influence the educated creole middle class in New Spain?

The Enlightenment introduced new ideas about liberty, democracy, and governance, which significantly influenced the educated creole middle class and fueled their discontent with colonial rule.

What event in 1808 precipitated the political instability that contributed to the Mexican War of Independence?

In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain, captured King Ferdinand VII, and placed Joseph Bonaparte on the throne, destabilizing Spanish authority and creating political chaos in the colonies.

Who issued the “Grito de Dolores” and what was its significance?

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a parish priest, issued the “Grito de Dolores” on September 16, 1810. This event marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence and was a call to arms against Spanish oppression.

What were the main objectives of the Congress of Chilpancingo convened by José María Morelos?

The Congress of Chilpancingo, convened by José María Morelos in 1813, aimed to formalize the insurgency’s goals by declaring independence from Spain and drafting a constitution.

What was the Plan of Iguala and who were the key figures involved in its creation?

The Plan of Iguala, created by Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero in 1821, promised an independent Mexico governed by a constitutional monarchy, equality for Spaniards and creoles, and the establishment of Roman Catholicism as the state religion.

How did the Plan of Iguala contribute to the success of the Mexican War of Independence?

The Plan of Iguala unified various insurgent factions and facilitated the defection of many royalist troops to the revolutionary side, significantly weakening Spanish control and paving the way for Mexican independence.

When did Iturbide’s army enter Mexico City, and what did this event signify?

Iturbide’s army entered Mexico City on September 27, 1821, signifying the official end of the Mexican War of Independence and the successful ousting of Spanish colonial rule.

What were the three original copies of Mexico’s Declaration of Independence document?

The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire is a pivotal document in the history of Mexico, marking the end of Spanish rule and the establishment of a sovereign nation. Created in 1821, three original copies of this historic document have had varied and dramatic histories, reflecting the turbulent periods that followed Mexico’s independence.

Provisional Governmental Board Copy

The first original copy of the Declaration was entrusted to the Provisional Governmental Board. This document was displayed prominently in the Chamber of Deputies, symbolizing the new nation’s break from colonial rule and its founding principles. Unfortunately, this copy met a tragic fate in 1909 when a fire at the Chamber of Deputies destroyed it. This loss marked a significant historical setback as it erased a primary source of the nation’s founding document.

Bravo/Ruiz de Velasco Family Copy

The second original declaration’s journey is a testament to the document’s significance to Mexican heritage and the personal value it held. Initially owned by Nicolás Bravo, a key figure in the Mexican War of Independence, this copy was passed down through generations of the Ruiz de Velasco family for 128 years. In a profound act of patriotism and respect for historical legacy, Pedro Ruiz de Velasco de la Madrid donated it to the nation on August 22, 1987. Governor José Francisco Ruiz Massieu of Guerrero received the document, and it was subsequently placed in the Museo Historico de Acapulco Fuerte de San Diego in Acapulco. This act ensured that the document remained accessible to the public and preserved as part of national heritage.

Regency of the Empire Copy

The third copy, initially given to the Regency of the Empire, has perhaps the most storied past. Kept at the National Palace, it was stolen in 1830, an event lamented by then-Foreign Minister Lucas Alamán, who noted its absence as a significant loss to the republic. This copy resurfaced under mysterious circumstances in the possession of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, bearing the ex libris of his library. After Maximilian’s execution, the document traveled beyond Mexican borders with Agustin Fischer, Maximilian’s confessor.

This copy later appeared in Spain in the collection of antiquarian Gabriel Sánchez before being acquired by the Mexican historian Joaquín García Icazbalceta. García Icazbalceta preserved the document, passing it down to his son Luis García Pimentel. In a continuation of its international journey, the declaration was sold to Florencio Gavito Bustillo, who intended to return it to Mexico. Tragically, Gavito Bustillo passed away before he could fulfill this mission, but his will expressed the desire for the document to be handed over to the Mexican president, which was accomplished by his son in 1961.

Preservation and Display

Since its repatriation, the third copy has been subject to meticulous preservation efforts. Initially displayed in Chapultepec Castle, it was later moved to the General Archive of the Nation to ensure its preservation under optimal conditions. Concerns about its exposure to potentially damaging conditions led to limited public showings.

In 2008, restoration work began, allowing the document to be displayed temporarily at the Palace of Lecumberri and, in 2010, at the National Palace as part of the bicentennial celebrations of Mexico’s independence. These events underscored the ongoing challenge of balancing public access to national treasures with the need to preserve them for future generations.

What is the difference between Mexico’s Independence Day and Cinco de Mayo?

Mexico’s Independence Day and Cinco de Mayo are two significant celebrations in Mexico that often get confused, especially outside of Mexico. Here’s a breakdown of their differences:

Mexico’s Independence Day (Día de la Independencia)

• Date: Celebrated on September 16th annually.
• Significance: This day marks the anniversary of Mexico’s independence from Spain. The celebration commemorates the “Grito de Dolores,” a call to arms that began the revolt against Spanish rule by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in 1810.
• Observances: Festivities include parades, fireworks, concerts, and the re-enactment of the Grito de Dolores by the President of Mexico and other politicians at various levels of government. The president rings the same bell Hidalgo rang in 1810 and shouts the names of Mexican heroes from the balcony of the National Palace in Mexico City, followed by the crowd’s response of “¡Viva!”.
• Historical Context: The movement led by Hidalgo, and later other leaders like José María Morelos, eventually led to the formal declaration of independence from Spain in 1821.

Cinco de Mayo (The Fifth of May)

• Date: Celebrated on May 5th annually.
• Significance: Cinco de Mayo commemorates the Mexican Army’s unexpected victory over the French forces at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862, under the leadership of General Ignacio Zaragoza.
• Observances: The day is observed with community parades, mariachi music performances, street festivals, and traditional Mexican food. Unlike Independence Day, Cinco de Mayo is not considered a federal public holiday.
• Historical Context: The battle occurred during the French intervention in Mexico when France tried to establish a monarchy under Maximilian of Austria. The victory at Puebla became a symbol of Mexican resistance to foreign domination. The French eventually captured Mexico City, and Maximilian was installed as Emperor, but his rule was short-lived as he was executed in 1867, and Mexico restored its republic.