Netjerkare Siptah, also known as Neitiqerty Siptah, was an ancient Egyptian king who reigned in the late 23rd century BC. He is traditionally considered the seventh and final ruler of the Sixth Dynasty, a period that marked the decline of Egypt’s Old Kingdom. However, some scholars place him as the first king of the Seventh or Eighth Dynasty, emphasizing the transitional nature of his reign. His rule coincided with the fragmentation of central authority and the rise of powerful provincial governors, known as nomarchs, signaling the disintegration of the once-powerful Egyptian state.

Adding to his enigmatic legacy is the intriguing theory that Netjerkare Siptah may be the historical figure behind Nitocris, a legendary queen recorded by ancient historians such as Herodotus and Manetho. This debate over his identity has made him one of the most mysterious rulers in Egyptian history.

The Abydos King List featuring the cartouche of Netjerkare

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Historical Context and Reign

Netjerkare Siptah ruled during a tumultuous period in Egypt’s history, at a time when the centralized power of the pharaoh was weakening. The Old Kingdom had reached its peak under earlier dynasties, with powerful rulers such as Pepi II, whose extremely long reign (possibly over 90 years) led to administrative stagnation and instability.

By the time of Netjerkare Siptah’s ascension, the unity of Egypt was disintegrating. Local governors had become increasingly independent, reducing the pharaoh’s influence over the country. The once-unquestioned central authority of Memphis was challenged by rival factions, and Egypt’s economy suffered from declining resources and internal strife. While Netjerkare Siptah’s exact length of rule is uncertain, most historians agree that it was short, likely lasting only a few years.

Attestation and Evidence

The evidence confirming Netjerkare Siptah’s existence and reign comes from various ancient sources, including king lists and archaeological discoveries. However, the scarcity of contemporary records has contributed to the confusion surrounding his identity.

Abydos King List

One of the primary records that mention Netjerkare Siptah is the Abydos King List, a chronological list of pharaohs compiled during the reign of Seti I in the Nineteenth Dynasty (c. 1290 BC). In this list, Netjerkare appears as the immediate successor to Merenre Nemtyemsaf II, suggesting that he ruled after this short-lived king. The inclusion of his name in this respected record confirms that he was officially recognized as a ruler.

Turin King List

Another important source, the Turin King List, written on a fragmentary papyrus from the Ramesside Period, refers to a king named Neitiqerty Siptah. This name closely resembles Netjerkare, leading scholars to believe they are the same individual. The Turin King List also provides a crucial clue—Netjerkare Siptah is placed near the end of the Old Kingdom, reinforcing the idea that he was one of the last rulers before Egypt plunged into the First Intermediate Period.

Archaeological Evidence

Physical evidence of Netjerkare Siptah’s reign is extremely limited. The only known artifact bearing his name is a copper tool, now housed in the British Museum. This object is inscribed with his prenomen, Netjerkare, but provides little additional information about his rule. The absence of monumental constructions or tomb inscriptions further deepens the mystery surrounding his reign and its historical significance.

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The Nitocris Connection

One of the most debated aspects of Netjerkare Siptah’s identity is whether he was actually the inspiration behind the legendary female ruler Nitocris. This theory, first proposed by the German Egyptologist Ludwig Stern in 1883, suggests that later Greek and Egyptian historians mistakenly transformed Netjerkare Siptah into a female figure over time.

Herodotus’ Account

The earliest mention of Nitocris comes from the Greek historian Herodotus, who wrote about her in his work Histories (5th century BC). According to Herodotus, Nitocris was a queen-pharaoh who took the throne after the murder of her brother and husband, a king who had been assassinated by a rebellious faction. To avenge his death, she devised an elaborate plan:

• She invited the conspirators to a grand banquet.
• During the feast, she diverted the Nile to flood the chamber, drowning them all.
• After enacting her revenge, she took her own life to avoid retribution.

This dramatic tale, while compelling, lacks any archaeological evidence. However, the story of a powerful ruler avenging a murdered predecessor bears some resemblance to the chaotic circumstances surrounding the end of the Sixth Dynasty.

Herodotus’s Description of the Ancient Egyptians

Manetho’s Account

A similar story appears in Manetho’s Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC. Manetho describes Nitocris as a brave and beautiful woman, further reinforcing the idea that she was a female ruler. He also credits her with building the Pyramid of Menkaure (the smallest of the three pyramids at Giza), though this is likely a later misattribution.

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While Netjerkare Siptah was undoubtedly a real king, the uncertainty surrounding his reign, identity, and gender has fueled centuries of speculation.

Egyptological Interpretations

The Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt has provided the most detailed analysis of this theory. According to Ryholt:

• Nitocris’ name may be a corruption of “Netjerkare.”
• The Turin King List’s Neitiqerti Siptah is likely another way of writing Netjerkare Siptah.
• The name “Siptah” is masculine, indicating that this ruler was not actually a woman.

If Ryholt’s hypothesis is correct, then Nitocris never existed as a separate historical figure. Instead, she was a legendary transformation of the male king Netjerkare Siptah, whose true identity was distorted over time.