Sunni versus Shia: Origin Story of the Divide
The division between Sunni and Shia Islam is one of the most significant schisms in the Islamic world. Emerging from a disagreement over the rightful succession to the Prophet Muhammad after his death in 632 CE, this split has evolved into a profound religious, cultural, and political divide.
How do Sunni and Shia beliefs differ? And what are the main Sunni and Shia populations?
In the article below, World History Edu explores the historical origins, theological differences, and contemporary implications of the Sunni-Shia divide, with a focus on its manifestations across various regions and its impact on global Muslim communities.
Historical Context
After Muhammad’s death, Muslims faced a pivotal question: who should lead the community? Sunnis believed leadership should be determined by consensus, leading to the selection of Abu Bakr as the first caliph. Conversely, Shia Muslims held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, was divinely designated as his successor.
This foundational disagreement led to political conflicts and, eventually, the Battle of Karbala in 680 CE, where Ali’s son, Husayn, was killed. This event became a defining moment for Shia Islam, symbolizing martyrdom and resistance against tyranny.
For centuries, Sunni and Shia communities coexisted but developed distinct religious practices, jurisprudence, and theological interpretations. Sunni Islam became the majority, while Shia Islam remained a minority, with significant populations in Persia and parts of the Arabian Peninsula.
Shia Muslims, making up 10-15% of the global Muslim population, primarily follow the Ithna Ashari (Twelver) tradition. Shia Islam originated with the belief that Ali, Prophet Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, and his descendants were rightful leaders. Key historical events, such as the martyrdoms of Ali and his sons Hassan and Hussein, underpin Shia theology, emphasizing concepts of martyrdom and injustice. Image: Ali in an illustrated copy of the Turkish epic Siyer-i nebi
Theological and Jurisprudential Differences
While both Sunnis and Shias adhere to the Quran and the Five Pillars of Islam, differences emerge in their interpretations of religious authority and leadership.
Sunnis believe in the legitimacy of the first four caliphs and emphasize community consensus. Shias uphold the Imamate, asserting that Ali and his descendants were divinely chosen to lead.
Shia Muslims consider sayings attributed to the Prophet’s family (Ahl al-Bayt) as authoritative, whereas Sunni Muslims rely on a broader collection of traditions.
Distinct rituals also mark the two sects. For instance, Shias commemorate Ashura with public mourning and self-flagellation to honor Husayn’s martyrdom, while Sunnis observe it as a day of fasting to commemorate Moses’ victory over Pharaoh.
Sunnis, comprising 85-90% of Muslims globally, emphasize adherence to the Sunnah—the practices and sayings of Prophet Muhammad. Sunni thought is guided by four major schools of jurisprudence, which shape their interpretations of Islamic law. Sunnis dominate in regions such as Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, with Cairo’s Al-Azhar Mosque being a historic Sunni learning center. Image: Image: Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, housing the Kaaba, is the world’s largest and holiest mosque, serving as the spiritual center of Islam.
Geopolitical Developments
The Safavid Empire (1501–1736) established Shia Islam as the state religion of Persia, solidifying its dominance in modern-day Iran. This created a geopolitical rivalry with Sunni Ottoman Turkey, a dynamic that continues to influence regional politics.
In the 16th century, the Safavid dynasty established Shia Islam as the state religion of Persia (modern-day Iran), marking Iran as a Shia stronghold.
The Iranian Revolution of 1979 and the Iraq War of 2003 brought Sunni-Shia tensions into sharper focus. Iran’s emergence as a Shia powerhouse challenged Sunni-led regimes, particularly in Saudi Arabia.
The resulting Iran-Saudi rivalry has fueled proxy conflicts in Lebanon, Yemen, and Syria, with sectarian identities often exacerbated by external political interests.
Led by Ayatollah Ruhollah, the 1979 Iranian Revolution transformed Iran into a theocratic Shia state, advocating a revolutionary form of Shia Islam. This clashed with Sunni-dominated nations, particularly Saudi Arabia, which promoted a conservative Sunni ideology. This rivalry fueled proxy conflicts across the Middle East, intensifying sectarian divides. The Iraq-Iran War (1980–1988) and the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 further destabilized the region, empowering Shia factions and alarming Sunni states.
Demographics and Global Distribution
Shia Muslims, comprising around 15%, argued leadership should remain within Muhammad’s family, starting with Ali, his cousin and son-in-law. Image: Site of the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
Shia Muslims constitute approximately 10–13% of the global Muslim population, with Sunni Muslims comprising 87–90%. Shia-majority countries include Iran, Iraq, and Bahrain, while significant Shia minorities exist in Lebanon, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia.
Regional Breakdown
- Middle East: Iran and Iraq serve as the epicenters of Shia Islam, while most Arab states remain Sunni-dominated.
- South Asia: Pakistan and India house large Shia populations, though sectarian violence remains a persistent issue.
- Africa and Asia: Shia communities in Nigeria and Afghanistan often face marginalization and violence.
Contemporary Implications
The Sunni-Shia divide has fueled numerous conflicts in recent decades, including the Syrian Civil War and the Yemeni Civil War. Extremist groups like ISIS have targeted Shia populations, exacerbating tensions.
The Iran-Saudi proxy war has significantly influenced Middle Eastern geopolitics, with both nations vying for influence in countries like Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria. This competition often manifests in support for opposing political factions and militant groups.
Despite these challenges, there have been efforts to bridge the Sunni-Shia divide. Initiatives like the Islamic Unity Week and interfaith dialogues seek to promote understanding and reduce sectarian hostility.
Cultural and Religious Practices
Both Sunni and Shia Muslims celebrate major Islamic holidays like Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr, underscoring their shared heritage.
Shia Islam’s unique practices, such as the use of clay tablets (turbah) during prayer, highlight its theological emphasis on the sanctity of the Prophet’s family.
Today, Shia form majorities in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, and Azerbaijan, with significant communities in countries like Lebanon, Pakistan, and India. Image: Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī in Najaf, Iraq
Beyond Religion: Power and Identity
While religious differences play a role, much of the conflict stems from struggles over wealth, resources, and political dominance. Historically, Sunnis and Shias coexisted peacefully, suggesting that sectarian divides are often exploited in times of social and political upheaval. Fundamentalist regimes in Saudi Arabia and Iran represent minority ideologies within their respective sects, further highlighting that broader Sunni and Shia populations seek coexistence over conflict.
The 20th century saw further fragmentation with the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, as European colonial powers redrew borders, disregarding religious and ethnic divisions.
In 2016, Saudi Arabia’s execution of Shia cleric Nimr al-Nimr sparked outrage, further escalating Sunni-Shia tensions. Sectarian divisions remain pivotal in Middle Eastern geopolitics, fueling conflicts and shaping alliances.
Ultimately, the Sunni-Shia divide is not solely a religious schism but a complex interplay of history, politics, and identity. Understanding its roots and modern manifestations is key to addressing the challenges it poses to peace and stability in the Islamic world.
Current crises reflect deep sectarian undertones. In Syria, Shia-aligned forces, including Iran-backed militias and Hezbollah, supported the Assad regime against Sunni opposition groups. Meanwhile, Sunni jihadist organizations like ISIS have targeted Shia civilians and sacred sites in Iraq and Syria.
Frequently Asked Questions
Sectarianism has fueled conflicts in recent decades. Sunni extremists have often labeled Shia as heretics, leading to violence. Image: The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest Islamic site
What caused the Sunni-Shia split?
The split arose after Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, over the question of his rightful successor. Sunnis believed leadership should be chosen by consensus, starting with Abu Bakr, while Shias held that Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, was divinely appointed.
Sunni Muslims, representing about 85% of the global Muslim population, believed the leader should be chosen by consensus, leading to the appointment of Abu Bakr as the first caliph. Image: Tombstone of caliphs – Abu Bakr and Umar (right), Medina, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
How do Sunni and Shia differ in religious leadership?
Sunnis follow a caliphate system based on community consensus, while Shias believe in the Imamate, asserting that Ali and his descendants were divinely chosen leaders.
What role does the Battle of Karbala play in Shia Islam?
The Battle of Karbala (680 CE), where Husayn, Ali’s son, was martyred, is a defining moment for Shia Islam, symbolizing resistance against tyranny and injustice, commemorated annually during Ashura.
In 681 CE, Ali’s son Husayn led a small group to Karbala, Iraq, to challenge Yazid, the Sunni caliph of the Umayyad dynasty. Outnumbered by Yazid’s forces, Husayn and his followers were massacred. Husayn’s death became a defining moment in Shia history, symbolizing resistance against oppression. Shia Muslims commemorate his martyrdom annually during Ashura, a central event in their religious calendar. Image: Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, Iraq
How do Sunni and Shia practices differ?
Shias place their foreheads on a clay tablet (turbah) during prayer and often combine two prayers, while Sunnis do not. Shias commemorate Ashura with mourning rituals, while Sunnis observe it with fasting.
What geopolitical factors have intensified the Sunni-Shia divide?
The 1979 Iranian Revolution positioned Iran as a Shia power, challenging Sunni-dominated nations like Saudi Arabia. Regional rivalries, proxy wars, and conflicts in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen have further deepened sectarian tensions.
Iran’s 1979 revolution catalyzed a Shia political resurgence, unsettling Sunni regimes. Tehran’s support for Shia militias contrasts with Sunni Gulf states backing Sunni movements, creating a proxy rivalry across the region.
What are the demographic differences between Sunnis and Shias?
Sunnis constitute 87–90% of Muslims worldwide, while Shias make up 10–13%. Shia-majority countries include Iran, Iraq, and Bahrain, with significant minorities in Pakistan, Lebanon, and Yemen.
How has the Iran-Saudi rivalry shaped sectarian conflicts?
Iran supports Shia groups like Hezbollah, while Saudi Arabia backs Sunni factions. This rivalry fuels proxy wars in countries like Syria and Yemen, intensifying sectarian divisions.
The Sunni-Shia divide is the oldest and most significant rift in Islam, shaping theological, political, and cultural dynamics for centuries. Both sects share fundamental beliefs like the Quran and core practices, yet diverge in doctrines, rituals, law, and religious organization. Their leaders often compete for influence, and modern conflicts have heightened these divisions, particularly in countries like Iraq, Syria, and Pakistan. Image: Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey
Timeline of the Sunni-Shia Divide
The Sunni-Shia divide in Islam is rooted in a succession dispute after the Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. While the two sects agree on the fundamental tenets of Islam, their historical split arose from differing beliefs about who should lead the Muslim community. Image: A depiction of Muhammad’s ascent to heaven by Sultan Mohammed
- 632 CE: Following Prophet Muhammad’s death, Islam divides into Sunni (consensus for leadership) and Shia (Ali’s family as leaders).
- 680 CE: Battle of Karbala cements Shia identity; Imam Husayn is martyred.
- 1501 CE: Safavid Empire adopts Shia Islam as Iran’s official religion, widening sectarian divides.
- 18th-19th Centuries: Sunni-Wahhabi movements clash with Shia communities, intensifying tensions.
- 1979: Iranian Revolution strengthens Shia political influence, unsettling Sunni states like Saudi Arabia.
- 1980–88: Iran-Iraq War highlights Shia-Sunni geopolitics.
- 2003: U.S. invasion of Iraq shifts power to Shia, sparking Sunni insurgency and sectarian violence.
- 2011: Arab Spring upheavals deepen Sunni-Shia rivalries in Bahrain, Syria, and Yemen.
- 2014–17: ISIS targets Shia in Iraq and Syria, exacerbating sectarian strife.
- Present: Iran-Saudi reconciliation attempts coexist with proxy conflicts across the Middle East.
Abbas Al-Musavi’s Battle of Karbala, Brooklyn Museum
