The Bull of Heaven is a significant figure in Mesopotamian mythology, playing a pivotal role in both the Sumerian poem Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven and the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh. This mythical creature, often associated with divine wrath and celestial symbolism, serves as a narrative tool to explore themes of defiance, punishment, and mortality.
Ancient Mesopotamian terracotta relief (c. 2250 -1900 BC) showing Gilgamesh slaying the Bull of Heaven, which was sent to unleash misery and pain on Gilgamesh and the city of Uruk. The episode is described in Tablet VI of the Epic of Gilgamesh
The Sumerian Poem: Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven
In the Sumerian version of the story, the Bull of Heaven is sent by the goddess Inanna to attack Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Unlike the later Akkadian account, Inanna does not proposition Gilgamesh to be her consort. Her demand for the Bull seems less rooted in personal vengeance and more in a divine assertion of power. In this version, Inanna threatens to let out a loud “cry” rather than raising the dead to attack the living, a stark contrast to the dramatic threats made by her Akkadian counterpart, Ishtar.
The Bull of Heaven is a mythical creature in Mesopotamian mythology, associated with divine wrath and celestial symbolism.
While the poem diverges in details, the essential narrative remains consistent: the Bull is unleashed on Uruk, wreaking havoc until it is slain by Gilgamesh and Enkidu. The Sumerian account lacks the detailed emotional and cosmic consequences of the Akkadian epic but sets the foundation for the iconic scene.
The Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh
In the Epic of Gilgamesh (Tablet VI), the goddess Ishtar, enraged by Gilgamesh rejecting her advances, persuades her father, Anu, to release the Bull against Gilgamesh and Uruk. Image: Goddess Ishtar stands on a lion and holds a bow, god Shamash symbol at the upper right corner, from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq
In the Akkadian version, found in Tablet VI of the Epic of Gilgamesh, the story becomes more elaborate and emotionally charged. After Gilgamesh rejects the goddess Ishtar’s romantic advances, she seeks revenge by demanding the Bull of Heaven from her father, Anu.
Ishtar threatens to release the dead upon the living if her demand is denied, forcing Anu to relent. Despite his warnings that the Bull’s release would cause seven years of famine, Ishtar insists that she has prepared enough provisions to sustain humanity during this time.
The Bull’s destruction is immediate and catastrophic. With its first breath, it creates a hole that swallows a hundred men; its second breath engulfs two hundred more. Gilgamesh and Enkidu confront the beast, with Enkidu seizing its tail while Gilgamesh delivers the killing blow. After the Bull’s defeat, its heart is offered to the sun-god Shamash, symbolizing divine appeasement.
Gilgamesh and Enkidu slay the Bull together, but Enkidu taunts Ishtar by throwing the Bull’s thigh at her. This act leads to the gods condemning Enkidu to death, triggering Gilgamesh’s quest to confront mortality. Image: Possible representation of Gilgamesh, the ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk who was later deified.
The Aftermath
Following the Bull’s death, Ishtar curses Gilgamesh and Enkidu from the walls of Uruk. In response, Enkidu taunts the goddess by throwing the Bull’s severed thigh at her, an act of hubris and defiance. Ishtar gathers temple courtesans to mourn the Bull, while Gilgamesh and Enkidu celebrate their victory.
This defiance comes at a cost. In Tablet VII, Enkidu dreams of a divine council where the gods decree his death as punishment for the killing of Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. Enkidu’s ensuing illness and death devastate Gilgamesh, catalyzing the epic’s shift to a meditation on mortality and the quest for eternal life.
Symbolism of the Bull of Heaven
The Bull represents divine power and retribution. Its release symbolizes the gods’ response to human defiance, underscoring the precarious relationship between mortals and deities.
Furthermore, the Bull of Heaven is linked to the constellation Taurus, suggesting an astronomical dimension to the myth. Scholars propose that Enkidu’s act of throwing the Bull’s thigh at Ishtar might explain why Taurus appears incomplete in the night sky.
The Bull, linked to Taurus, may have astronomical significance.
Enkidu’s taunting of Ishtar and the subsequent divine punishment highlight themes of hubris and its consequences. His death marks the price of defying divine authority and serves as a turning point for Gilgamesh, forcing him to confront his own mortality.
Ishtar on an Akkadian Empire seal, 2350–2150 BC.
Comparative Analysis with Other Myths
The Bull of Heaven’s story has parallels in other Near Eastern and Greek traditions:
Sumerian and Akkadian Links
Scholars suggest the Bull may be synonymous with Gugalanna, the consort of Ereshkigal, as mentioned in Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld. This connection reinforces the Bull’s association with divine punishment and cosmic order.
The Odyssey
In Homer’s Odyssey, the slaughter of Helios’s sacred cattle by Odysseus’s men mirrors the killing of the Bull of Heaven. Both stories feature divine vengeance, with companions of the hero facing death for their actions, leaving the protagonist to continue the journey alone.
Near Eastern Myths
The motif of seven years of famine, linked to the Bull’s release, echoes themes in the Ugaritic tale of Aqhat and the story of Joseph in the Book of Genesis. These narratives explore themes of foresight, divine justice, and survival.
Walter Burkert identifies parallels between Ishtar’s confrontation with Anu and Aphrodite’s plea to Zeus in The Iliad. Both scenes depict goddesses seeking justice from their fathers after suffering humiliation.
Artistic Representations
Depictions of the Bull of Heaven are common in Mesopotamian art, particularly on Akkadian cylinder seals. These artifacts portray the Bull as an immense and ferocious creature, emphasizing its divine origin and destructive power. The recurring imagery reinforces the myth’s cultural significance and its role in expressing human relationships with the divine.
The Bull frequently appears in Mesopotamian art, especially on Akkadian cylinder seals.
READ MORE: Major Facts about the Akkadian Empire
Legacy of the Myth
The story of the Bull of Heaven has endured for millennia, offering insights into ancient Mesopotamian beliefs about the gods, cosmic order, and human ambition. The narrative’s layers of symbolism, from celestial associations to moral lessons, ensure its relevance in discussions of myth, literature, and history.
By intertwining themes of hubris, retribution, and mortality, the myth of the Bull of Heaven captures the complexities of human existence and our enduring quest to reconcile power, consequence, and the inevitability of death.
Frequently Asked Questions
This epic poem from the ancient Sumer people is considered oldest known epics of all time. It comes in second on the list of oldest religious texts, just behind the Pyramid Texts of ancient Egypt. | Image: Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh
It appears prominently in both the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Sumerian poem Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven. The Bull is sent by the goddess Inanna (or Ishtar) to punish Gilgamesh and cause destruction.
Why does the Bull of Heaven attack Gilgamesh?
In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Bull is unleashed after Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar’s romantic advances. Offended, Ishtar demands the Bull from her father Anu to take revenge on Gilgamesh and his city, Uruk. In the Sumerian poem, the motivations are less personal, and Inanna’s demand seems rooted in asserting divine power rather than personal vengeance.
READ MORE: Most Famous Ancient Mesopotamian Cities
How does the Bull of Heaven cause destruction?
The Bull’s breaths create massive holes in the ground, swallowing hundreds of men with each exhalation. Its destructive power symbolizes divine anger and the chaos unleashed upon human defiance.
Who defeats the Bull of Heaven?
Gilgamesh and his companion Enkidu work together to slay the Bull. Enkidu grabs its tail to immobilize it, allowing Gilgamesh to deliver the killing blow by thrusting a sword into its neck.
A number of ancient depictions show the Bull as a massive, fearsome creature and often illustrate its battle with Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Image: Gilgamesh and his best mate Enkidu journey into the Cedar Forest where they kill Humbaba the Terrible as well as cut down many trees in the forest
What happens after the Bull of Heaven is killed?
After the Bull’s death:
- Its heart is offered to Shamash, the sun-god.
- Ishtar curses Gilgamesh and Enkidu from the walls of Uruk.
- Enkidu taunts Ishtar by throwing the Bull’s severed thigh at her.
- The gods convene and decide that Enkidu must die as punishment for slaying the Bull and defying divine authority.
What role does the Bull of Heaven play in Enkidu’s death?
The gods decree Enkidu’s death as punishment for slaying the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba. His death serves as a catalyst for Gilgamesh’s journey, driving him to seek immortality and confront his own fear of death.
