Herodotus, the ancient Greek historian known as the “Father of History,” wrote extensively about Egypt in his monumental work, Histories. His account of the Egyptians is found primarily in Book II, often referred to as the “Egyptian Logoi.” In this section, Herodotus offers a detailed description of Egyptian society, culture, geography, and religion, drawing from his travels to Egypt and his encounters with its people.

Geography and the Nile

Herodotus begins by discussing Egypt’s geography, emphasizing the central role of the Nile River in shaping the country. He famously describes Egypt as the “gift of the Nile,” noting that the river’s annual flooding deposits fertile silt, which allows for agriculture in an otherwise arid region. This natural process was essential to the prosperity of Egypt, and Herodotus details how the Nile’s regular inundation created a predictable agricultural cycle that sustained the population.

Herodotus is fascinated by the Nile, yet he admits that its origins and reasons for its flooding were mysterious to him and his contemporaries. He speculates about various explanations but ultimately acknowledges the limits of his knowledge. Despite this, his account provides valuable insight into how deeply intertwined the Egyptians’ lives were with the river, influencing not only their agriculture but also their religious and cultural practices.

READ MORE: How did the Nile make Egypt a great ancient civilization?

Customs and Social Structure

Herodotus is particularly interested in the distinctiveness of Egyptian customs, which he often contrasts with Greek practices. He notes that many of their customs seemed to him the “reverse” of those in Greece. For example, Egyptian men carried loads on their heads while women carried them on their shoulders, and men wove cloth while sitting down, whereas Greek men wove while standing.

The Egyptians also practiced circumcision, a custom which Herodotus found unusual but which they considered important for hygiene and religious purity. He comments on their dietary habits, noting that they were largely vegetarian, eating bread made from emmer wheat and drinking beer instead of wine, which was less common in Egypt than in Greece.

Herodotus also provides a hierarchical view of Egyptian society, describing the social classes, including priests, warriors, herdsmen, swineherds, merchants, and interpreters. The priests, in particular, fascinated Herodotus due to their privileged status and the central role they played in Egyptian religion and governance. He notes their elaborate cleanliness rituals, their dietary restrictions, and their authority in both religious and secular matters.

READ MORE: What everyday life was like in ancient Egypt

Religion and the Gods

Religion is a central theme in Herodotus’s account of Egypt. He emphasizes the Egyptians’ deep religiosity, remarking that they were the most pious people he had ever encountered. He gives detailed descriptions of their pantheon, temples, rituals, and the concept of the afterlife. Herodotus links many aspects of Egyptian religion to Greek practices, suggesting that the Greeks had borrowed several gods from Egypt, such as Dionysus, whom he equates with the Egyptian god Osiris.

Herodotus is particularly interested in the Egyptian belief in the afterlife and their elaborate burial practices, especially the process of mummification. He describes the various methods of preserving bodies, depending on the wealth of the deceased, and highlights the Egyptians’ concern with maintaining the physical body for the soul’s journey in the afterlife. This focus on burial practices and the afterlife is something Herodotus finds unique and perplexing.

READ MORE: List of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses

The Pharaohs and Their Achievements

Herodotus spends considerable time discussing the rulers of Egypt, whom he refers to as “pharaohs,” though he uses the term generically. He provides a chronological account of several notable pharaohs, focusing particularly on their building projects, military campaigns, and interactions with foreign powers.

Among the rulers Herodotus mentions is Sesostris, whom he credits with great military conquests and an ambitious building program. He also discusses the famous pharaohs Cheops (Khufu), Chephren (Khafre), and Mycerinus (Menkaure), who were responsible for constructing the pyramids at Giza. Herodotus’s description of the Great Pyramid is one of the earliest known, though he includes some inaccuracies, such as the mistaken belief that the pyramid was built by slave labor, a myth that has since been debunked.

Herodotus also tells the story of the pharaoh Psammetichus, who conducted an experiment to discover the original language of humanity by raising two children in isolation and observing the first word they spoke. According to Herodotus, the children’s first word was “bekos,” the Phrygian word for bread, which led Psammetichus to conclude that Phrygians were the oldest people in the world. This anecdote, though likely apocryphal, reflects Herodotus’s interest in language and cultural origins.

READ MORE: Most Famous Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt

Architecture and Engineering

Herodotus is in awe of Egyptian architectural achievements, particularly the pyramids, which he describes in detail. He marvels at the size and complexity of these structures and attempts to explain how they were built, though his explanations are based on hearsay rather than technical knowledge. He notes the use of ramps and large labor forces, though his numbers are exaggerated.

In addition to the pyramids, Herodotus discusses other notable structures, such as the labyrinth at Hawara, which he claims was even more impressive than the pyramids. He also mentions the canal that linked the Nile to the Red Sea, a remarkable engineering project that facilitated trade and military expeditions. Herodotus attributes these feats to the ingenuity and organizational prowess of the Egyptian rulers, whom he admires for their ability to mobilize vast resources.

Medicine and Science

Herodotus is struck by the Egyptians’ advanced knowledge of medicine and their specialization in various branches of the field. He describes how each physician in Egypt was a specialist, treating only one part of the body, which he contrasts with the generalist approach of Greek doctors. This division of labor, he argues, made Egyptian medicine more effective.

The Egyptians’ understanding of disease and healing was closely linked to their religious beliefs, and Herodotus notes that they often attributed illnesses to the gods. However, their empirical knowledge of anatomy, gained from the practice of mummification, gave them an advantage in medical practice. Herodotus also remarks on the Egyptians’ use of medicinal plants and their cleanliness, which he associates with their religious devotion.

Egypt’s Influence on Greece

Throughout his account, Herodotus emphasizes the influence of Egyptian culture on Greece. He suggests that many aspects of Greek civilization, including religious practices, art, and architecture, were borrowed from Egypt. For example, he claims that the Greek gods and religious rituals, such as the worship of Dionysus, originated in Egypt and were adapted by the Greeks.

Herodotus also notes the similarities between the two cultures in terms of philosophy and science. He argues that early Greek thinkers, such as Pythagoras and Thales, traveled to Egypt to study its advanced knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, and geometry. This belief in Egypt as a source of wisdom and learning reflects the high regard in which Herodotus and his contemporaries held Egyptian civilization.

Criticism and Doubts

While Herodotus expresses great admiration for Egyptian culture, he is also critical and skeptical of certain aspects of their society. For instance, he questions the veracity of some of the stories he hears from Egyptian priests, such as the long reigns of early pharaohs and their claims about the antiquity of Egyptian civilization, which they claimed was the oldest in the world.

Herodotus is also puzzled by the Egyptians’ adherence to customs that seemed strange to him, such as their aversion to swine and the rigid structure of their society. He occasionally casts doubt on the reliability of his sources, noting that much of what he reports is based on secondhand accounts. Nevertheless, he presents these stories as part of his broader inquiry into the nature of Egyptian civilization.

Conclusion

Herodotus’s account of the Egyptians is one of the most detailed and extensive descriptions of an ancient civilization in classical literature. His portrayal of Egypt as a land of wonders, with its towering monuments, elaborate religious rituals, and deep-seated cultural traditions, left a lasting impression on the Greek imagination and continues to influence our understanding of ancient Egypt today.

Though his work contains inaccuracies and reflects the biases of his time, Herodotus’s curiosity and respect for Egyptian civilization shine through. His Histories remains a valuable source for historians and scholars seeking to understand how the ancient Greeks viewed their neighbors to the south and how the cultures of the Mediterranean world interacted and influenced one another in antiquity.

Questions and Answers

How did the roles of men and women in Egypt differ from those in other cultures?

In Egypt, women manage trade in the marketplace, while men stay at home and weave. This is a reversal of traditional gender roles seen in many other cultures. Additionally, Egyptian women carry their burdens on their shoulders, while men carry theirs on their heads. Women urinate standing up, and men crouch down, which is also contrary to typical customs elsewhere.

How did the weaving process in Egypt differ from that in other cultures?

Egyptians weave by pushing the woof downwards, whereas in other cultures, weavers push the woof upwards.

What unusual beliefs about privacy and public behavior did Egyptians hold?

Egyptians relieve themselves indoors but eat outdoors. They believe that actions that are necessary but unseemly, such as relieving oneself, should be done in private, while actions that are not shameful, like eating, can be done in public.

Who serves as priests in Egypt, and how did this differ from other cultures?

Only men serve as priests in Egypt, both for male and female deities. This contrasts with some other cultures where women may also serve as priestesses. Furthermore, Egyptian priests shave their heads, unlike priests in other lands who often grow their hair long.

What are some Egyptian customs related to food and hygiene?

Egyptians avoid eating wheat and barley, instead making bread from emmer wheat. They knead dough with their feet but handle clay and dung with their hands. Egyptians also practice circumcision for cleanliness, unlike many other cultures.

How did Egyptians differ from other cultures in terms of shipbuilding and navigation?

Egyptians secure the ropes and rings for their sails inside the ship, while other cultures typically fasten them outside the vessel.

What were the two types of writing systems used by Egyptians?

Egyptians use two kinds of writing systems: one sacred and one common.

How important is religion to the Egyptians, and what are some of their religious practices?

Egyptians are extremely religious, more so than any other people. They perform rituals like drinking from bronze cups that are cleaned daily, wearing freshly washed linen garments, and circumcising themselves for cleanliness. Priests shave their entire bodies every other day to avoid pests and bathe in cold water four times a day.

What were some of the privileges enjoyed by Egyptian priests?

Egyptian priests do not consume their own provisions, as they are provided with bread, meat, and wine. However, they are forbidden from eating fish or beans, which are considered impure. When a priest dies, his son typically succeeds him in his role.

How did Egyptians believe the names of their gods relate to those in Greece?

Egyptians believe that most of the names of the Greek gods were adopted from Egyptian deities. They maintain that their gods’ names have existed for all time, with the exception of deities like Poseidon, whose name and worship were introduced to the Greeks by the Libyans.

How did the Egyptians view sacred animals, and what are the consequences for harming them?

Egyptians consider many animals sacred and believe they have divine associations. Specific animals, such as ibises and hawks, are particularly revered. Harming these animals, whether intentionally or not, is punishable by death.

How did the Egyptians approach divination and predicting the future?

Egyptians believe they can predict a person’s fate based on the day of their birth. They observe portents and record the outcomes, believing that similar events in the future will have similar results. They have oracles dedicated to gods such as Heracles, Apollo, and Zeus, and their method of divination varies by region.

What was unique about Egyptian medicine, and how is it practiced?

Medicine in Egypt is highly specialized. Each physician focuses on treating only one disease, such as ailments of the eyes, teeth, or stomach. This results in a large number of medical specialists throughout the country.