The Mexican conservatives’ support for the French invasion of Mexico in 1862 was a product of a complex and tumultuous historical context, rooted in the ideological, political, and social conflicts that had plagued the country for decades. Understanding this seemingly paradoxical alliance requires delving into the political factions in Mexico, the consequences of the Reform War, the deep-rooted divisions between liberals and conservatives, the economic pressures of the time, and the strategic interests of France under Emperor Napoleon III.

The support of Mexican conservatives for the French invasion was a strategic calculation based on a mix of ideological, religious, and socio-political motivations. They sought to reverse the liberal reforms and restore their waning influence. However, the complexities of Mexican society, combined with international dynamics, meant that their gamble would not pay off in the long run. Image: Arrival of French troops to Mexico City

Below, World History Edu explore these elements in detail to explain why Mexican conservatives backed the French intervention.

Political Landscape of Mexico

Following Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1821, the country was in political and social turmoil. The early decades of the 19th century were marked by power struggles between two dominant political ideologies: liberalism and conservatism.

• Liberals sought to modernize Mexico by adopting a federalist structure with decentralized power. They pushed for secularism, individual rights, economic reforms, and curbing the influence of the Catholic Church and the military in national governance. Liberals often represented the emerging middle class, intellectuals, mestizos, and some sectors of the indigenous population.
• Conservatives, on the other hand, were committed to maintaining traditional structures. They supported a centralized government, strong ties between the Church and state, and the preservation of the social hierarchies that had existed during the colonial period. Their base of support came from the upper class, landowners, the clergy, and military elites. Conservatives valued stability, religious orthodoxy, and continuity with the past.

These two factions clashed repeatedly, vying for control of Mexico’s future. The competition for power created an environment ripe for external intervention.

The Reform War (1857–1860)

The internal conflicts between liberals and conservatives reached a peak in the Reform War (1857–1860), a civil war triggered by the implementation of liberal reforms that sought to diminish the power of the Catholic Church and the military.

• The liberals, led by Benito Juárez, introduced the Lerdo Law and the Juárez Law during the Reform Era (1855–1861). These reforms sought to secularize church lands and reduce the privileges of the military and the clergy. The Lerdo Law required the Church to sell off its vast landholdings that were not being used for religious purposes, while the Juárez Law abolished special privileges (fueros) that had allowed clergy and military officials to avoid civil prosecution.
• Conservatives viewed these reforms as an existential threat. The Church had been a central pillar of Mexican society since the colonial era, wielding immense power and owning vast tracts of land. The reforms were seen not only as an attack on their religious institutions but also as a radical upheaval of traditional Mexican social structures.

The Reform War ended in 1860 with a liberal victory, and Benito Juárez assumed the presidency. The liberals moved forward with their agenda of modernization and secularization, which further alienated the conservatives. Defeated but not reconciled, Mexican conservatives saw their influence and wealth diminish under liberal rule. This loss of power was a key factor in their eventual support for foreign intervention, as they believed it could restore their dominance.

Benito Juárez – 26th President of Mexico

Economic Instability and Foreign Debts

In addition to political strife, Mexico’s economy was in dire condition by the early 1860s. The Reform War, coupled with earlier conflicts, had drained the nation’s treasury. The country faced mounting foreign debts, particularly to France, Spain, and Britain, which had lent money to Mexico during its years of turmoil. The Mexican economy was struggling to recover, and there was widespread poverty and instability.

In 1861, in a desperate bid to stabilize the country’s finances, President Benito Juárez issued a moratorium on debt repayments to foreign creditors. He announced that Mexico would suspend payments on its foreign debt for two years. This move angered European creditors, particularly France under Napoleon III, who saw an opportunity to advance French geopolitical interests in the Americas.

While the foreign debt crisis provided the formal pretext for European intervention, it was only part of the broader picture. The French had other ambitions in Mexico, and conservatives saw this as a chance to regain control of the country by aligning themselves with European powers.

Conservative Discontent and the Search for Stability

For Mexican conservatives, the liberal reforms implemented by the Juárez government represented a profound threat to their way of life. The loss of Church lands, the weakening of military privileges, and the general push towards secularism left conservatives feeling marginalized in the new Mexican state.

In this context, conservatives increasingly viewed foreign intervention as the only viable means of reversing the liberal agenda. Their dream was to establish a monarchical government that would restore order, preserve traditional institutions, and halt the liberal reforms that were dismantling the Mexico they had known.

Napoleon III, the Emperor of France, offered conservatives hope. He had grand ambitions to create a Latin empire in the Americas, restore the influence of the Catholic Church, and counterbalance the growing power of the United States in the region. Mexican conservatives, hoping for the restoration of a traditional society under the protection of a European monarch, eagerly sought Napoleon III’s support.

The French Invasion and Conservative Hopes

In 1862, France launched its invasion of Mexico under the guise of recovering unpaid debts. However, Napoleon III’s real intentions were far more ambitious. He aimed to establish a client state in Mexico, ruled by a European monarch, which would serve French interests in the region. Napoleon III saw this as a way to expand French influence in the Western Hemisphere and to counter the Monroe Doctrine, the U.S. policy that opposed European interference in the Americas.

The conservatives believed that by supporting this intervention, they could install a monarch who would uphold conservative values, protect the Catholic Church, and restore the centralized government they had long advocated for. They were convinced that a European-backed monarchy could bring stability to a country wracked by internal divisions and economic distress.

• Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria was chosen by Napoleon III to be installed as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. Maximilian, a member of the powerful Habsburg dynasty, was seen as the ideal candidate to legitimize the monarchy and bring order to Mexico.

The Mexican conservatives welcomed the idea of a monarchy led by a European aristocrat. They believed that a strong monarchy, backed by French military power, would reverse the reforms of Benito Juárez and restore their traditional privileges.

Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico

The Role of the Catholic Church

One of the primary reasons for conservative support of the French invasion was the Catholic Church’s loss of power under the Juárez regime. The Reform Laws, particularly the Lerdo Law, had secularized church lands and reduced its economic and social influence. The Church, which had played a dominant role in Mexican society since the colonial era, had become one of the most vocal opponents of the liberal government.

Conservatives believed that a monarchy would restore the Church’s preeminent position in Mexican society. They saw Maximilian as a Catholic ruler who would safeguard religious traditions, reverse the secularization policies, and protect the Church from further liberal encroachments. For many conservatives, the support of the French invasion was not only a political decision but also a religious imperative to defend the Catholic faith in Mexico.

Maximilian’s Rule and Conservative Disillusionment

Despite the initial optimism of Mexican conservatives, the reality of Maximilian’s reign did not fully align with their expectations. Maximilian, though conservative by European standards, adopted several liberal policies once in power. He demonstrated a commitment to social reforms, including land reforms and workers’ rights, and sought to reconcile the liberal and conservative factions in Mexico.

Maximilian also refused to return Church lands that had been confiscated during the Juárez administration, which alienated many of his conservative supporters. While the conservatives had envisioned a restoration of their traditional privileges under Maximilian’s rule, the emperor sought to govern for all Mexicans, not just the elite.

This disconnect between Maximilian’s policies and conservative expectations led to growing disillusionment among his original backers. The conservatives had supported the French invasion and the establishment of the monarchy with the hope of reversing the liberal agenda, but Maximilian’s efforts to compromise and implement reforms created tensions within their ranks.

Soldiers of the Imperial Mexican Army

International Pressures and the Decline of French Support

The Mexican conservatives’ hopes for a stable monarchy under Maximilian began to crumble as the international situation changed. In the early 1860s, the United States was preoccupied with its own Civil War, allowing France to intervene in Mexico without significant opposition. However, after the war ended in 1865, the U.S. began to apply diplomatic pressure on France to withdraw from Mexico, citing the Monroe Doctrine.

Facing growing opposition from the U.S. and dealing with increasing challenges in Europe, Napoleon III decided to withdraw French troops from Mexico in 1866. This left Maximilian without the military support he needed to maintain his rule. The withdrawal of French forces marked the beginning of the end for the conservative-backed monarchy.

The Fall of the Monarchy and the Death of Maximilian

With the withdrawal of French troops, the republican forces led by Benito Juárez gained momentum. Maximilian, despite several opportunities to leave Mexico and return to Europe, chose to stay and fight for his empire. However, without French military support, his position became increasingly untenable.

In 1867, Maximilian was captured by republican forces, tried for treason, and executed by firing squad. His death marked the definitive end of the conservative dream of a monarchy in Mexico. Benito Juárez and the liberals reestablished the Mexican Republic, and the era of conservative influence waned further.

Conclusion

The Mexican conservatives’ support for the French invasion in 1862 was driven by a desire to reverse the liberal reforms that had stripped the Catholic Church and the military of their power and to restore a centralized government that aligned with their traditional values. Conservatives believed that a European-backed monarchy, under the rule of Maximilian, would bring stability, protect the Church, and reinstate their privileged status in Mexican society.

However, their hopes were dashed as Maximilian’s policies proved more liberal than expected, and the eventual withdrawal of French military support left the monarchy vulnerable to republican forces. The fall of Maximilian’s empire was a turning point in Mexican history, signaling the end of conservative ambitions to reclaim control through foreign intervention and marking the triumph of the liberal republican government under Benito Juárez.