The Sultanate of Rum was a culturally Turco-Persian Sunni Muslim state established over conquered Byzantine territories in Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The name “Rum” signified the medieval Eastern Roman Empire (i.e. the Byzantine Empire) and its peoples, reflecting the Seljuks’ dominion over former Byzantine lands.

Origins and Establishment

Turkic groups had been migrating into Anatolia since the 1030s, seeking pasturelands. After the decisive victory at Manzikert in 1071, Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutalmish took control of key Byzantine cities, including Nicaea and Nicomedia. He established an autonomous principality that eventually evolved into an independent sultanate by 1077.

Following his death in 1086, his son Kilij Arslan I was briefly imprisoned before reasserting his rule. The sultanate’s capital moved from Nicaea to Konya, marking a strategic shift in its consolidation of power.

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The Crusades and Conflict with Byzantium

The Sultanate of Rum played a crucial role in resisting the Crusades. Although Kilij Arslan I repelled the People’s Crusade of 1096, he suffered a major defeat against the First Crusade. Forced to retreat, he reorganized his forces and won key victories during the Crusade of 1101.

During the Second Crusade, launched by European monarchs Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, the Seljuks successfully hindered the crusaders’ advance. Later, Kilij Arslan II decisively defeated Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos at the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, cementing Seljuk dominance over Anatolia.

Timeline of the Crusades

Expansion and Economic Development

The Sultanate of Rum reached its height in the late 12th and early 13th centuries under rulers like Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I. The sultans expanded their territory, capturing strategic coastal cities along the Black and Mediterranean Seas.

An important aspect of their rule was economic development. The Seljuks established an extensive network of caravanserais, facilitating trade between Central Asia, Iran, and the Mediterranean. Trade relations, particularly with Genoa, flourished, increasing the sultanate’s wealth and allowing it to absorb smaller Turkish states like the Danishmendids, Mengüjekids, and Artuqids.

Mongol Conquest and Decline

The Mongol invasions marked the beginning of the decline of the Sultanate of Rum. In 1243, Mongol forces under Baiju decisively defeated the Seljuks at the Battle of Köse Dağ. The Seljuks became vassals of the Ilkhanate, significantly reducing their autonomy.

By the late 13th century, the sultanate disintegrated into various smaller beyliks. The last effective sultan, Mesud II, was assassinated in 1308, leaving Anatolia fragmented. Among the emerging Turkish beyliks, the Ottoman dynasty ultimately rose to prominence, unifying Anatolia and forming the Ottoman Empire.

 

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Cultural and Architectural Legacy

Despite its decline, the Sultanate of Rum left a lasting cultural impact. It was a key center of Turco-Persian civilization, promoting Persian literature, art, and administration. The Seljuks built remarkable structures, including mosques, madrasas, and caravanserais, blending Persian, Byzantine, and Islamic architectural styles.

Notable architectural achievements include the Gök Medrese in Sivas and the Sultan Han caravanserai, which facilitated trade and communication across Anatolia. The influence of Seljuk art and administration persisted in the later Ottoman Empire.

Timeline of the Sultanate of Rum

• 1071: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, opening Anatolia to Turkish settlement.
• 1075: Suleiman ibn Qutalmish establishes control over Nicaea and Nicomedia, laying the foundation for the Sultanate of Rum.
• 1077: The Sultanate of Rum is formally established as an independent entity from the Great Seljuk Empire.
• 1086: Suleiman dies in battle; his son Kilij Arslan I is imprisoned, while a general, Abu’l-Qasim, rules in his place.
• 1092: Kilij Arslan I is released and reclaims his father’s territories, consolidating power in Konya.
• 1096–1099: The First Crusade forces him to retreat from Nicaea, making Konya the new capital.
• 1101: Kilij Arslan I defeats multiple Crusader armies in Anatolia.
• 1176: Sultan Kilij Arslan II defeats the Byzantines at the Battle of Myriokephalon, ending Byzantine hopes of reclaiming Anatolia.
• 1207: Kaykhusraw I captures Antalya, securing access to Mediterranean trade.
• 1214: Kaykaus I captures Sinop, expanding northward to the Black Sea.
• 1220–1237: Under Kayqubad I, the sultanate reaches its peak, absorbing smaller Turkish states.
• 1243: The Mongols crush the Seljuks at the Battle of Köse Dağ, reducing them to vassals.
• 1308: Mesud II, the last Rum Seljuk sultan, is murdered, marking the end of the sultanate.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why was it called the “Sultanate of Rum”?

“Rum” was a term used for the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, reflecting the region’s previous rulers.

Who founded the Sultanate of Rum?

Suleiman ibn Qutalmish established it in 1077 after breaking away from the Seljuk Empire.

What was the capital of the Sultanate of Rum?

Initially, it was Nicaea (İznik), but it later moved to Iconium (Konya).

How did the Sultanate of Rum expand?

It captured key Byzantine cities, absorbed rival Turkish states, and established strong trade networks, particularly with the Genoese.

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What role did the Crusades play in its history?

The Sultanate fought against the Crusaders, notably defeating them in the 1101 Crusade and the 1176 Battle of Myriokephalon.

How did the Mongols affect the Sultanate?

The Seljuks were defeated at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, becoming vassals of the Mongol Ilkhanate.

When did the Sultanate of Rum collapse?

It fragmented in the late 13th century, with its last ruler, Mesud II, murdered in 1308.

What happened after the Sultanate’s fall?

Small Turkish beyliks, including the Ottomans, emerged from its remnants and eventually reunified Anatolia.

What was the cultural influence of the Sultanate?

It blended Persian, Byzantine, and Islamic traditions, with Persian as the administrative and literary language.

How did the Sultanate contribute to architecture?

It developed Anatolian Seljuk architecture, constructing caravanserais, mosques, and madrasas influenced by Persian and Byzantine styles.

What was the economic foundation of the Sultanate of Rum?

Trade routes, silver coinage, and caravanserais facilitated commerce across Anatolia, linking it to Central Asia and the Mediterranean.