Who were Plague Doctors? And what Roles did they Play in 17th-Century Europe
A plague doctor was a physician who treated victims of bubonic plague during epidemics in 17th-century Europe. These physicians were typically hired by municipalities to provide medical care to infected patients, particularly the poor, who could not afford to pay for private physicians. Despite their important role, plague doctors were often viewed with suspicion and fear, as their presence was associated with death and despair.
A depiction of a 17century plague doctor in Rome.
Reputation and Qualifications
Plague doctors had a mixed reputation among the public. While some saw them as essential healers, others considered them harbingers of doom, their arrival signaling the severity of an outbreak. Some plague doctors took advantage of their patients, charging additional fees for dubious treatments or ineffective remedies.
Many plague doctors were not formally trained physicians or surgeons. Instead, they were often volunteers, second-rate doctors, or inexperienced young practitioners at the start of their careers. Their primary function was not to cure patients but to record the number of infected individuals and document mortality rates for demographic and statistical purposes. In some cases, cities hired foreign doctors to fill these roles, as local physicians were either unavailable or unwilling to treat plague victims.
The Role of Plague Doctors in France and the Netherlands
In France and the Netherlands, many plague doctors lacked formal medical training and were referred to as “empirics.” They were distinct from general practitioners, who were typically better trained and treated a wider range of ailments. Despite their lack of expertise, plague doctors were often the only medical professionals available in affected areas, and their work played a crucial role in documenting the spread of the disease.
Plague doctors played a crucial role in treating and documenting the spread of the bubonic plague during epidemics.
Early References to Plague Doctors
The concept of plague doctors wearing masks dates back to 1373 when Johannes Jacobi recommended their use, although he did not describe their physical appearance. The first documented reference to the iconic plague doctor costume appears during the 1619 plague outbreak in Paris. The French royal physician Charles de Lorme, who served King Louis XIII, is credited with developing the distinctive plague doctor outfit.
In 1656, German engraver Gerhart Altzenbach published an illustration of a plague doctor, which later inspired Paulus Fürst’s satirical work, “Doctor Schnabel von Rom.” This satirical image depicted the plague doctor as a terrifying figure who profited from the suffering of others. Such portrayals contributed to the public’s fear and mistrust of these physicians.
Plague Doctors in Historical Epidemics
During the Black Death in 1348, the city of Orvieto hired Matteo fu Angelo as a plague doctor, paying him four times the usual rate of 50 florins per year. Pope Clement VI also employed additional plague doctors in Avignon to tend to the sick. In Venice, of the 18 doctors working in the city, only one remained by the end of the epidemic, as five had died and twelve had disappeared, possibly fleeing the outbreak.
Methods and Treatments
Plague doctors used a variety of treatments, many of which were based on humoral theory. Bloodletting was a common practice, as was the application of leeches and frogs to the swollen buboes in an attempt to “rebalance the humors.” These methods, however, were largely ineffective and often worsened the patient’s condition.
Another key responsibility of plague doctors was recording death tolls and infection rates. In some cities, such as Florence and Perugia, they were also required to perform autopsies to better understand the disease’s impact on the body. Additionally, plague doctors often took down the last wills and testaments of dying patients, offering advice on their final arrangements.
The Plague Doctor Costume
One of the most recognizable aspects of the plague doctor was their distinctive costume. The outfit typically included an ankle-length overcoat, gloves, boots, a wide-brimmed hat, and a beaked mask filled with aromatic substances. The mask functioned as a primitive respirator, believed to protect the wearer from “miasma,” or bad air, which was thought to carry the disease.
The beak of the mask contained dried flowers, herbs such as lavender and peppermint, and other aromatic substances like juniper berries, ambergris, cloves, myrrh, and storax. The idea was that these strong-smelling substances would counteract the harmful odors associated with the plague. The mask also had glass openings for the eyes, providing some protection from airborne particles.
The wide-brimmed hat signified the doctor’s profession, while a wooden cane was used to examine patients from a distance and to remove clothing from infected individuals without direct contact. Some plague doctors’ robes were made from linen, as it was believed to be less likely to retain contagion, while others were made from goat skin and sealed with wax for additional protection. Though the costume was based on incorrect medical theories, it may have provided some degree of protection by preventing flea bites, which were the primary transmission vector for the plague.
The origins of the costume remain debated, with most sources pointing to Italy and France in the 17th century. Although later historical accounts suggest that similar attire was used during earlier outbreaks, these claims may have been influenced by theatrical and fictional representations rather than actual historical evidence.
The Plague Doctor’s Contract
Plague doctors were often employed under formal contracts with municipal authorities. These agreements outlined their responsibilities, which included exclusively treating plague patients to prevent the spread of infection to the general population. Many contracts also stipulated that plague doctors had to remain in quarantine after treating patients.
Negotiations for these contracts were often lengthy and involved significant bargaining. For instance, in 1630, the city of Turin negotiated with Dr. Maletto to serve as their plague doctor. City administrators sought to secure his services at the lowest possible rate while ensuring that they would not lose the opportunity to hire a doctor willing to take on such a dangerous role.
An example of a plague doctor contract from Pavia in 1479 shows that these agreements contained numerous clauses covering salary, living expenses, and work obligations. Giovanni de Ventura’s contract included a clause that initially provided a salary of 30 florins per month, which was later revised to exclude living expenses. The contract also included conditions for severance pay and full citizenship rights, contingent on the doctor’s performance.
Reprimands and Violations
Plague doctors were expected to adhere strictly to the terms of their contracts. Any breach of the agreement could result in fines or other penalties. In 1527, in the city of Prato, a plague doctor named Stefano Mezzettino was fined for attending to non-plague patients without a custodian present, violating safety protocols and putting the public at risk.
Notable Plague Doctors
Several plague doctors gained historical recognition for their contributions during epidemics:
- Giovanni de Ventura was contracted by the city of Pavia in 1479 as a community plague doctor.
- Niall Ó Glacáin (c. 1563–1653) was an Irish physician who gained widespread respect in Spain, France, and Italy for his work treating plague victims.
- Ambroise Paré, a French anatomist, and Paracelsus, a Swiss physician, were also noted plague doctors of the Renaissance period.
- Nostradamus provided advice on plague prevention, advocating for fresh air, clean water, and rose-hip preparations. He also advised against bloodletting, which was a common but ineffective treatment.
- John Paulitious was Edinburgh’s first plague doctor in 1645 but died within weeks of beginning his work. He was succeeded by George Rae, who took over the position.
An engraving depicting Niall Ó Glacáin.
Frequently Asked Questions
Were plague doctors qualified medical professionals?
Many plague doctors lacked proper medical training, with some being young, inexperienced, or even volunteers. In France and the Netherlands, they were often referred to as “empirics” due to their lack of formal education.
A typical outfit of a plague doctor on display.
Why did plague doctors wear beaked masks?
The beak was filled with aromatic herbs and spices, based on the belief that disease spread through “bad air” (miasma). The mask was intended to filter out harmful vapors and protect the doctor.
What treatments did plague doctors use?
Common treatments included bloodletting, applying leeches or frogs to buboes, and using herbal remedies. These methods were largely ineffective and based on outdated medical theories.
How did plague doctors interact with patients?
They often acted as legal witnesses, recording last wills and testaments. Some also conducted autopsies in cities like Florence and Perugia to study the disease’s effects.
Were plague doctors respected or feared?
Their presence often signaled imminent death, making them a foreboding figure. Some were accused of exploiting patients by charging extra for ineffective treatments or fake cures.
What was the significance of their contracts?
Plague doctors were hired under strict agreements that outlined their duties, wages, and quarantine requirements. Some contracts required them to only treat plague victims to avoid spreading the disease further.
Did their costumes provide real protection?
Though based on incorrect medical theories, the waxed robes and masks likely offered some protection against flea bites—the true cause of the plague—making their attire an early example of a hazmat suit.
