Cyrus the Younger (424–401 BC), son of Darius II and Parysatis, was a Persian prince and satrap known for his ambition and military prowess. Aided by Greek mercenaries, he launched a bold but unsuccessful rebellion against his brother, Artaxerxes II. His life, chronicled in Xenophon’s Anabasis, highlights leadership, alliances, and the complexities of Achaemenid politics.

Early Life and Character

Cyrus the Younger was born around 424 BC as the second son of Darius II and Parysatis. From a young age, he exhibited a bold and headstrong nature, contrasting with his elder brother Arsicas (later Artaxerxes II), who was considered more gentle and yielding.

Historical accounts, such as those from Xenophon, emphasize Cyrus’s impressive qualities in his youth, including exceptional horsemanship, proficiency in hunting, and a strong sense of loyalty. His scars from grappling with a bear during a hunt became lifelong testaments to his courage and determination.

Rise to Power as Satrap

In 408 BC, Cyrus was appointed satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia by his father, Darius II. This role also included command of the Persian military forces in Asia Minor, giving him substantial authority.

His appointment coincided with Persia’s decision to bolster Spartan efforts in the Peloponnesian War against Athens. Cyrus quickly aligned himself with Lysander, a prominent Spartan general, providing financial and military support that contributed to significant Spartan victories, including the decisive Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC.

Events that Triggered the Rivalry Between Sparta and Athens

Relationship with Sparta

Cyrus’s relationship with Sparta proved pivotal in shaping his political ambitions. By generously supporting Lysander and the Spartan cause, Cyrus secured an influential ally who later assisted in his rebellion against Artaxerxes II. This partnership highlighted Cyrus’s strategic foresight and his ability to leverage alliances for personal gain. His financial contributions and promises of future rewards strengthened the bond, ensuring Spartan support during his campaign to seize the throne.

Death of Darius II and Succession Crisis

The death of Darius II in 404 BC triggered a succession crisis between Cyrus and his elder brother, Artaxerxes II. Although Parysatis strongly favored Cyrus, arguing that he was born after Darius became king, her efforts to secure the throne for him were unsuccessful. Artaxerxes II was proclaimed king, and Cyrus retained his satrapy. However, tensions escalated when Cyrus was accused of plotting to assassinate Artaxerxes. Though pardoned through his mother’s intercession, this event deepened his resolve to claim the throne.

The Rebellion Against Artaxerxes II

In 401 BC, Cyrus initiated a rebellion to overthrow Artaxerxes II. He cleverly disguised his preparations by feigning conflicts with neighboring satraps and assembling an army under the pretense of campaigning against unruly mountain tribes.

His force included a significant contingent of Greek mercenaries, known as the “Ten Thousand,” who were renowned for their discipline and effectiveness in battle.

The March to Cunaxa

Cyrus’s army advanced from Sardis through Asia Minor, gathering strength and support along the way. He relied on promises of wealth and power to maintain the loyalty of his troops, particularly the Greek mercenaries. The Spartan fleet aided his movement by securing critical mountain passes and ensuring his forces could cross into Babylonia unopposed. Despite the challenges of organizing a multinational army, Cyrus managed to maintain order and focus among his troops, demonstrating his leadership skills.

The Battle of Cunaxa

The decisive confrontation occurred in October 401 BC at Cunaxa, near Babylon. Cyrus’s army faced a larger force commanded by Artaxerxes II. The battle strategy hinged on the Greek hoplites breaking through the Persian center, where Artaxerxes himself commanded.

However, the plan faltered when Cyrus, in a moment of impulsive bravery, charged directly at his brother. He succeeded in wounding Artaxerxes but was ultimately killed in the melee. His death marked the end of the rebellion and the disintegration of his Persian forces.

Artaxerxes III of Persia depicted in a rock relief at Persepolis.

The Retreat of the Ten Thousand

Although Cyrus’s campaign ended with his death, the Greek mercenaries he employed embarked on a remarkable retreat, chronicled by Xenophon in his Anabasis.

Abandoned deep in enemy territory, the “Ten Thousand” demonstrated exceptional discipline and resilience as they fought their way north to the Black Sea. This retreat not only showcased the effectiveness of Greek military organization but also became a symbol of perseverance and unity under adversity.

Legacy and Historical Significance

Cyrus the Younger’s life and rebellion have left a lasting imprint on history. He is remembered as an ambitious and capable leader who inspired loyalty through generosity and fair treatment of allies. His alliances, particularly with Sparta, underscored his strategic acumen, while his bold attempt to overthrow Artaxerxes II revealed both his audacity and his flaws.

Xenophon’s account of the campaign and the subsequent retreat provided valuable insights into Persian and Greek military practices, as well as the geopolitical dynamics of the period. Cyrus’s life serves as a poignant reminder of the risks and consequences of political ambition in ancient Persia.

Rulers of the Achaemenid Empire: From Cyrus the Great to Artaxerxes V