Which Empires Conquered Ancient Egypt?
Ancient Egypt, with its rich history spanning over three millennia, witnessed the rise and fall of many empires. The allure of Egypt’s wealth, strategic location, and fertile lands along the Nile attracted numerous conquerors.
Which of the empires that conquered ancient Egypt were the most brutal? And how did those empires enrich the culture of Egypt?
In this comprehensive exploration, world historians at WHE delve into the empires that conquered ancient Egypt, examining their motivations, conquests, and impacts on Egyptian civilization.
The Hyksos
Image: An ancient artwork titled “Abisha the Hyksos”.
The Hyksos, a Semitic people, are among the first recorded foreign conquerors of Egypt. Originating from the Levant, they infiltrated Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (circa 1800-1550 BC), a time of political fragmentation and internal strife.
The Hyksos initially settled in the Nile Delta, gradually expanding their influence. Around 1650 BC, they seized Memphis, establishing the 15th Dynasty. Their superior military technology, including horse-drawn chariots, composite bows, and advanced fortifications, gave them an edge over the native Egyptians.
The Hyksos rulers of ancient Egypt introduced significant technological and cultural innovations, including new weapons, musical instruments, and improved agricultural techniques. They also influenced Egyptian language and administration.
In 1580 BC, the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty sought to expel the Hyksos, with Ahmose I succeeding around 1550 BC, founding the Eighteenth Dynasty and beginning the New Kingdom period. Despite demonization, the influence of the Hyksos was significant. Image: Statue of the head of Ahmose I.
However, their rule was marked by tension and resistance, culminating in the rise of the Theban kings who eventually expelled them and reunited Egypt under the 18th Dynasty, marking the beginning of the New Kingdom.
The Hyksos were the first-known foreign rulers of ancient Egypt, described by the historian Manetho as ruthless and bloodthirsty invaders. However, modern scholars believe they migrated from the Levant for centuries before forming the Fifteenth Dynasty.
The Libyans and the Third Intermediate Period
Following the decline of the New Kingdom (circa 1550-1070 BC), Egypt entered the Third Intermediate Period (circa 1070-664 BC), characterized by political fragmentation and foreign invasions. Among the conquerors during this time were the Libyans.
Libyan tribes, such as the Meshwesh and Libu, had long been in contact with Egypt, serving as mercenaries and settlers. Over time, they gained political power, with Sheshonq I (Shoshenq I) establishing the 22nd Dynasty around 945 BC. His reign marked the beginning of significant Libyan influence in Egypt.
The Libyan rulers adopted Egyptian customs and titles, integrating into the existing culture while also introducing their own traditions. This period saw a decentralization of power, with local rulers (nomarchs) gaining autonomy. Despite internal strife, Egypt continued to be a significant cultural and religious center.
The history of ancient Egypt is marked by a series of foreign conquests that shaped its civilization in profound ways. From the Hyksos and the Kushites to the Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, and Romans, each empire left an indelible mark on Egypt’s political, cultural, and economic landscape. Image: A kneeling statue of a king of the Meshwesh tribe.
The Kushites
Ancient Egypt’s power waned after the Bronze Age Collapse, leading to the Third Intermediate Period around 1077 BC. In the eighth century BC, Kushite king Kashta managed to take control of Upper Egypt, while his son, Piye, invaded Lower Egypt around 728 BC, establishing the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Image: Map and heartland of Kushite empire.
During the New Kingdom era, Egypt conquered several neighboring kingdoms and expanded to its greatest extent. Pharaohs like Thutmose III (known to modern scholars as the Napoleon of Ancient Egypt) launched campaigns into Nubia, a prosperous civilization to the south known as the Kingdom of Kush.
The Kingdom of Kush, located to the south of Egypt in present-day Sudan, had a long history of interaction with its northern neighbor.
Although the Egyptians conquered much of Nubia, the region flourished, possessing valuable commodities like gold, ebony, ivory, and horses. Luxury goods from Nubia made Egypt wealthier, and Egyptians built several temples, including Thutmose III’s large temple complex dedicated to Amun at Jebel Barkal in Napata.
During Egypt’s periods of weakness, Kushite rulers sought to assert their dominance. Image: Artwork depicting officials from Kushite.
In the 8th century BC, the Kushite king Piye (Piankhi) launched a campaign to reunify Egypt, culminating in the conquest of Memphis around 727 BC. The Kushite rulers, known as the 25th Dynasty or the Napatan Dynasty, ruled Egypt for about a century.
The Kushite pharaohs, such as Piye and Taharqa, are remembered for their piety and efforts to restore Egyptian religious traditions. They undertook significant building projects, including the renovation of temples and the construction of new ones, such as the temple at Jebel Barkal.
However, their rule faced constant threats from Assyria, culminating in their eventual expulsion by the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 671 BC.
Piye’s son, Shabaqa, defeated Tefnakht’s son, Bakenrenef, and ruled both Egypt and Nubia from Memphis. However, the Kushite pharaohs soon attracted the unwelcome attention of the powerful Assyrian Empire. Image: Statue of Kushite pharaoh, Taharqa.
The Assyrians
The Assyrian Empire, known for its military prowess and territorial expansion, emerged as a dominant force in the Near East during the early 1st millennium BC. Their interest in Egypt was driven by its strategic and economic significance. Image: Assyrian archers.
Possibly the son of Pharaoh Piye, Taharqa became pharaoh in 690 BC, presiding over a flourishing empire, restoring and expanding temples, especially at Karnak, further entwining Egyptian and Kushite culture.
In 701 BC, Nubian prince Taharqa led an army to assist King Hezekiah of Judah against Assyrian forces besieging Jerusalem. Although the Assyrians were driven back, Egypt had made a dangerous enemy.
Assyrian incursions into Egypt began in the late 8th century BC. Under the reign of Esarhaddon, the Assyrians successfully invaded Egypt, capturing Memphis in 671 BC. His successor, Ashurbanipal, further solidified Assyrian control, defeating the Kushite pharaoh Taharqa and his successor, Tantamani. Image: A sculpture work Esarhaddon.
In 674 BC, Assyrian king Esarhaddon invaded Egypt but was defeated by Taharqa. Esarhaddon regrouped, successfully invading again in 671 BC, seizing Memphis and much of Lower Egypt. Taharqa fled south, but his family was captured and deported to Assyria. After regrouping, Taharqa managed instigate revolts in Lower Egypt and retake Memphis. However, his rule would be temporary as Ashurbanipal, the successor of Esarhaddon, went on to defeat the Egyptians in 667 BC.
Tantamani, son and successor of Taharqa, wrested control of Egypt from the Ashurbanipal’s vassal King Necho I. Psamtik, the son of Necho, then fled to Assyria to seek support from Ashurbanipal. In the final showdown, Tantamani’s Egyptian forces were defeated by Psamtik and his Assyrian allies. This defeat brought to an end the Nubian control of Egypt.
The Assyrian conquest brought devastation but also significant administrative changes. They installed local rulers, known as vassal kings, to govern different regions. However, the Assyrian hold on Egypt was tenuous, facing continuous resistance and internal strife. The Assyrian Empire eventually weakened, allowing Egypt to regain partial autonomy under the Saite Dynasty (26th Dynasty).
The Persians and Cambyses II
The Achaemenid Persian Empire, a true ancient superpower, rose under Cyrus the Great in 550 BC, conquering Western Asia, including Babylon. Cyrus’ successor Cambyses II later targeted Egypt’s wealth. Image: An epitaph depicting Cambyses II kneeling and worshiping an Apis, a sacred bull.
The Persian Empire, under the Achaemenid Dynasty, became one of the largest and most powerful empires of the ancient world. Their conquest of Egypt occurred during the reign of Cambyses II, son of Cyrus the Great.
After Psamtik I reunified Egypt and the Assyrian Empire fell in 609 BC, the Twenty-sixth Dynasty pharaohs expanded into the Near East, posing a potential threat to the nascent Achaemenid Empire. Image: Bust of Psamtik I, located at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.
In 525 BC, Cambyses II led a campaign against Egypt, defeating the Saite pharaoh Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium. This marked the beginning of the first Persian occupation of Egypt, known as the 27th Dynasty.
In 525 BC, Cambyses defeated the Egyptians at Pelusium, captured Memphis, and deported Psamtik III, the last pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, to Susa after only six months on the throne. Image: Psamtik III, the last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty. Image: A sculpture work depicting Psamtik III.
The Persians implemented efficient administrative reforms, integrating Egypt into their vast empire. They respected Egyptian customs and religion, appointing satraps (governors) to manage the province. Persian king Darius I (Darius the Great), in particular, undertook significant construction projects and maintained stability.
However, heavy taxation and occasional revolts marked the Persian rule. The first Persian period ended with the Egyptian rebellion led by Amyrtaeus, who established the 28th Dynasty around 404 BC. Two more native dynasties would go on to rule Egypt before Egypt was once again reconquered by the Persians around 343 BC under Artaxerxes III, who established the Thirty-First Dynasty. Their rule, however, did not last for long as a decade later, the fierce Macedonians (under the command of the young conqueror Alexander the Great) ended Persian rule over Egypt.
The ancient empires that conquered Egypt, while often bringing turmoil and change, also facilitated the exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultures, contributing to the rich tapestry of Egyptian history. Image: Cambyses II, the first Persian pharaoh of Egypt, meeting Psamtik III.
The Macedonians and Alexander the Great
After centuries of dominance in Western Asia, the Persians faced Alexander the Great, who, at twenty, gathered his Macedonian armies and set out to conquer the Achaemenid Empire. Image: Mosaic of Alexander.
Alexander the Great, the Macedonian king, embarked on a series of conquests that created one of the largest empires in history. His invasion of Egypt was part of his campaign against the Persian Empire.
In 332 BC, Alexander the Great entered Egypt, facing little resistance from the Persian satrap Mazaces. The Egyptians, disillusioned with Persian rule, welcomed Alexander as a liberator. He was crowned pharaoh in Memphis and founded the city of Alexandria, which would become a major cultural and intellectual center.
Alexander’s conquest marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period in Egypt. His successor in Egypt, Ptolemy I Soter, established a dynasty that ruled Egypt for nearly 300 years.
Ptolemy chose Alexandria as his new capital and declared himself pharaoh. To solidify his position, he intercepted Alexander the Great’s body en route to Macedon and interred it in Alexandria. This strategic move was likely intended to legitimize his claim as Alexander’s greatest successor. By housing the conqueror’s remains, Ptolemy could associate himself with Alexander’s legacy, strengthening his rule over Egypt.
From its capital Alexandria, the Ptolemaic period saw a fusion of Greek and Egyptian cultures, advancements in science and the arts, and the construction of monumental buildings like the Library of Alexandria and the Pharos lighthouse. However, internal conflicts and external pressures eventually led to the decline of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.
The Achaemenid satrap, Mazaces, surrendered Egypt quickly. Alexander founded Alexandria, reformed taxes, and restored temples. At the Oracle of Siwa, he was declared the son of Amun. Image: Coin of Mazaces.
Did you know…?
- Alexander stayed in Egypt for a year before pursuing Persian king Darius III. After defeating him at the Battle of Gaugamela, Alexander gained control of the Persian Empire. However, he never returned to Egypt and died in Babylon in 323 BC.
- The burial site of Alexandria the Great became a symbol of Ptolemy’s authority and connection to Alexander, aiding his efforts to establish the Ptolemaic Dynasty and secure the Ptolemies’ position as the rulers of Egypt.
The Romans
The Roman Republic, and later the Roman Empire, emerged as the dominant power in the Mediterranean. Their interest in Egypt was driven by its economic wealth and strategic location.
The Roman involvement in Egypt began with the political intrigues surrounding Cleopatra VII, the last Ptolemaic ruler. After her alliances with Roman generals Julius Caesar and Mark Antony failed, Octavian (future Emperor Augustus) defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The following year, Egypt was annexed as a province of the Roman Empire.
The Roman conquest marked the end of ancient Egypt as an independent state. Under Roman rule, Egypt remained a vital economic hub, supplying grain to the empire. The Romans maintained many aspects of Egyptian administration and culture but introduced Roman law and governance. Alexandria continued to thrive as a center of learning and commerce.
However, heavy taxation and occasional revolts persisted. The Roman period saw the gradual decline of traditional Egyptian religion, eventually supplanted by Christianity.
Despite suffering a number of invasions and conquests, the enduring legacy of ancient Egypt’s monumental achievements and cultural heritage continues to captivate the world. Image: Sculpture of Cleopatra VII.
Did you know…?
- During the Crisis of the Third Century, several of Rome’s eastern provinces rebelled and formed the Palmyrene Empire under Queen Zenobia. In 269 AD, Zenobia’s armies invaded and seized control of Egypt. However, the Romans, under Emperor Aurelian, reconquered Egypt in 272 AD.
- While the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD, Egypt remained under the Eastern Roman Empire‘s control. In 618 AD, the Sasanian Empire occupied Egypt for ten years before it reverted to Roman control. The final blow came in 641 AD when the Muslim Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate captured Egypt, marking the end of Roman rule in the region.
